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CONTAINING THREE THOUSAND QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
TAKEN FROM THE BEST AUTHORITIES ON THE COMMON SCHOOL 
BRANCHES, ARRANGED IN A SYSTEMATICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL 
ORDER ; WITH AN APPENDIX OF OUTLINES ON MAP DRAWING, 
ON INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES AND ANALYSIS IN GRAMMAR, 
ON PERCENTAGE IN ARITHMETIC, ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OP 
TEACHING, A SCALE OF CRITICISM, HINTS AND SUGGESTIONS ON 
THE PREPARATION OF MSS., RULES AND REGULATIONS TO BB 
OBSERVED DURING EXAMINATIONS, &C. 

Prepared Expressly for the Use of Teachers in Reviewing 
for Examinations ; 

Also 

ADAPTED TO THE USE OF COMMON SCHOOLS, HIGH SCHOOLS, 

AND INSTITUTES, FOR DAILY, WEEKLY AND 

MONTHLY REVIEWS. 



.V 



.^^ /^ 



By 



J. E. SHE R RILL, 

EDITOR AND PUBLISHER OF THE "NORMAL TEACHER. 



PRICE-ONE DOLLAR AND A HALF, 



DANVILLE, INDIANA 



1 



PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOB. 
1879. 







Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1870, 

By J.E. SHERRILL. 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 



CHICAGO STEREOTYPE WORKS, 

85 & 87 Fifth Avenue, 
Chicago, - - - Illinois. 



PREFACE. 



A number of question books have been prepared on the common 
school branches, but as a learned educator expresses it, "none of 
them seem to be quite the thing,'' or in otlier words there is in them 
a want of adaptation of means to end. The chief purpose of The 
Normal Question Book is that of preparing teachers for examination, 
by affording them a hand-book, in the use of which tliey will be 
directed in the review of the branches in a natural and normal man- 
ner. The questions are so arranged as to bring out the vital and 
difficult points of each subject, and the answers are selected from 
various excellent and late authorities, with the name, page and par- 
agraph of the book from which the answer is taken, given in con- 
nection with it. Thus, by the use of this book in a review, the stu- 
dent is introduced to the latest and best authorities on the several 
branches, and in tracing out the answers, is led to an investigation 
and comparison of their merits. In this way he forms an acquaint- 
ance with a range of reference books such as will be necessary to 
make him well informed, and "up to the times" educationally. 
This independent comparison of authors is a great point in our nor- 
mal method of study, and it is this which makes our pupils inde- 
pendent of any books, having an opinion of their own, or able to 
cite their authority if their opinion be called in question. The 
questions and answers are by no means the all important feature of 
the book. The Appendix of Outlines on Map Drawing, Percent- 
age, Infinitives and Participles, Analysis in Grammar, Theory and 
Practice of Teaching, Topic Lists, and Hints and Suggestions on 
various other subjects, such as the preparation of manuscripts, and 
rules and regulations to be observed during examinations, must 
prove a mine of treasure to the teacher. If the Normal Question 
Book does not prove to be "quite the thing," we hope it will at least 
be a suggestive step in the line of improvement. But trusting that 
it may be valuable — that it may be a helpful guide to many who 
will faithfully follow its leadings, it is respectfully submitted to the 
Teaching Public. 

Danville, Indiana, June 1, 1879. 



PUBLISHER'S NOTICE. 



For the purpose of making due acknowledgement to the authors 
and publishers of the several works consulted in the preparation of 
this book, and for the benefit of those who may desire to purchase 
and consult any of these several works, we give below a complete 
list of them, together with the names and addresses of the pub- 
lishers. 

Orthography: Harvey's English Grammar ; published by Van 
Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. Greene's English Gram- 
mar ; published by Cowperthwait & Co., thiladelphia. Clark's 
Normal Grammar ; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., 34 and 36 
Madison street, Chicago, and 11 Williams street, New York. Ha- 
mill's Science of Elocution ; published by Nelson & Phillips, New 
York, and Hitchcock & Walden, Cincinnati. Quackenbos' English 
Grammar ; published by D. Appleton & Co., 549 and 551 Broad- 
way, New York. Wolfard's Practical Speller ; published by Geo. 
E. Stevens & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. Holbrook's Complete English 
Grammar ; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati and 
New York. Fewsmith's English Grammar ; published by Sower, 
Potts & Co., Philadelphia. Butler's Practical and Critical Gram, 
mar ; published by John P. Morton & Co., Louisville, Ky. 

Reading: Fertich's Instructive Elocution; published by the 
Author, W. H. Fertich, Muncie, Ind. Hamill's Science of Elocu- 
tion ; published by Nelson & Phillips, New York, and Hitchcock 
& Walden, Cincitmati. Sander's Rhetorical Reader ; published by 
Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman & Co., Nos. 47 and 49 Greene street. 
New York, and by J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, and S. 0. 
Griggs & Co., Chicago. Holbrook's Normal Methods ; A . S. 
Barnes & Co., New York and Chicago. Hai-vey's Graded School 
Fifth Reader ; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati 
and New York. McGuffie's Eclectic Fifth Reader ; published by 
Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati and New York. Cole's In- 
stitute Reader ; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincin- 
nati and New York. Holbrook's Complete English Grammar ; 



published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati and New 
York. Harper's United States Sixth Reader ; Harper Brothers, pub- 
lishers, New York. Northend's Teacher and Parent ; published by 
Jenks, Hickling & Swan, 131 Washington street, Boston. 

Arithmetic : Philosophy of Arithmetic, Written Arithmetic, 
Normal Union Arithmetic, by Edward Brooks, A.M., Ph. D.; pub- 
lished by Sower, Potts & Co., Philadelphia. White's Complete, and 
Ray's Third and Higher Arithmetics ; published by Van Antwerp, 
Bragg & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. Quackenbos' Practical and Higher 
Aritlimetics ; published by D. Apple ton & Co., New York. The 
New American Practical Arithmetic ; published by J. H. Butler & 
Co., Philadelphia. Milne's Practical Arithmetic ; published by 
Jones, Brother & Co., Cincinnati, Philadelj^hi, Chicago and Mem- 
phis. French's Common School Arithmetic ; published by Harper 
& Brothers, New York. Thompson's Practical Arithmetic ; pub- 
lished by William H. Moore & Co., Cincinnati. Robinson's Pro- 
gressive Practical Arithmetic ; published by Ivison, Blakeman, 
Taylor & Co., New York and Chicago. Hagar's Common School 
Arithmetic ; published by Cowperthwait & Co., Philadelphia. 
Raub's Complete and Elementary Arithmetics ; published by Por- 
ter & Coates, Philadelphia. 

Grammars : Boltwood's English Grammar, and How to teach It; 
published by Geo. Sherwood & Co., Chicago. Holbrook's Com- 
plete English Grammar ; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg <& 
CJo., 137 Walnut street, Cincinnati, and 28 Bond street. New York. 
Smith's English Grammar ; published by J. H. Butler & Co., 
Philadelphia. Swinton's Progressive English Grammar ; Harper & 
Brothers, Publishers, New York. Lynd's First Book of Etymology ; 
published by E. C. & J. Biddle, 6 South Fifth street, Philadelphia. 
Quackenbos' English Grammar ; published by D. Appleton & Co., 
549 and 551 Broadway, New York. Bingham's Grammar of the 
English Language ; published by J. H. Butler & Co., Philadelphia. 
Kerl's Common School Grammar ; published by Ivison, Blakeman, 
Taylor & Co., 138 and 140 Grand street, New York, and 138 and 
135 State Street, Chicago. Pinneo's Analytical Grammar ; pub- 
lished by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati. Harvey's Eng- 
lish Grammar ; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., 13 7 
Walnut street, Cincinnati, and 28 Bond street, New York. Clark's 
Normal Grammar ; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, 
Chicago and New Orleans. Fewsmith's Elementary Giammar ; 



published by Sower, Potts & Co., 530 Market street and 523 
Minor street, Philadelphia. Goold Brown's First Lines of English 
Grammar, and Grammar of Grammars ; published by William 
Wood & Co., 27 Great Jones street, New York. English Grammar, 
Lee & Hadley ; published by Hadley Brothers, Chicago. Hart's 
English Grammar and Analysis ; published by Eldredge & Bro., 17 
North Seventh street, Philadelphia. English Grammar and Com- 
position, Reed and Kellogg ; published by Clark & Maynard, 5 
Barclay street. New York. Butler's Practical and Critical Gram- 
mar ; John P. Morton & Co., Louisville, Ky. 

History : Taylor's Brief History of the American People ; pub- 
lished by George Sherwood & Co ., Chicago. Parley's Common 
School History of the World, by Samuel G. Goodrich ; published 
by J. H. Butler & Co., Philadelphia. Campbell's Concise School 
History of the United States ; published by Brewer & Tileston, 
Boston ; J. W. Schermerhorn & Co., New York ; Eldredge and Bro., 
Philadelphia. Venable's United States History ; Van Antwerp, 
Bragg & Co., Cincinnati and New York. Berard's United Statet 
History ; published by Cowperthwait & Co., Philadelphia. Henry's 
School History of the United States ; published by Martin & Co., 
Paducah, Ky. Swinton's Condensed U. S. History ; published by 
Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., 138 and 140 Grand street, New 
York, 133 and 135 State street, Chicago. Barnes' Brief History 
of the United States ; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York 
and Chicago. Willard's School History of the United States ; 
published by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York and Chicago. Rid- 
path's Popular History ; published by Nelson & Phillips, New 
York. Wilson's Outlines of History, University Edition ; pub- 
lished by Ivison, Blakeman & Co., New York and Chic ago. Har- 
per's Smaller School History, by David B. Scott ; published by 
Harper & Brothers, Franklin Square, New York. Gilman's Gene- 
ral History ; published by Hurd & Houghton, New York, and The 
Riverside Press, Cambridge. Anderson's Grammar School History ; 
published by Clark, & Maynard, New York, and Jansen, McClure 
& Co., Chicago. Quackenbos' History ; published by D. Appletou 
& Co., 443 and 445 Broadway, New York. Kerney's Catechism of 
The History of the United States ; published by Kelly & Piet, Bal- 
timore, Md. 

Geography: Swinton's Complete Course in Geography; pub- 
lished by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York and Chicago. 



Eclectic School Geography, by A. Von Steinwehr ; published by Van 
Antwerp, Bragg & Co., New York and Cincinnati. Harper's School 
Geography ; published by Harper and Brothers, New York. Mitch- 
ell's New School Geoa:raphy ; published by J. H , Butler & Co., 
Philadelphia. Houston's Physical Geography; published by Eld- 
redge and Brother, No. 17 North Seventh St., Philadelphia. Guyot's 
Physical Geography; published by Chas. Scribner's Sons, 743 and 
745 Broadway, New York. Our World in a Nutshell ; published 
by the World Publishing House, 139 Eighth Street, New York. 
Monteiih's Comprehensive Geography ; published by A. S. Barnes 
& Co., Chicago. Swinton's Complete Course in Geography; pub- 
lished by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York and Chicago. 
Warren's Physical Geography ; published by Cowperthwait & Co., 
Philadelphia. Loomis's Treatise on Astronomy ; Harper Brothers, 

New York. 

Physiology: Brown's Physiology and Hygiene; published by 
Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati and New York. Hand Book 
of Health, by J. N. Lougborough; published by Seventh Day Ad- 
Ycntist Publishing Association, Battle Creek, Michigan. Hitch- 
cock's Anatomy and Physiology ; published by Ivison, Blakeman, 
Taylor and Co., New York and Chicago. Comings Class Book of 
Physiology; published by D. Appleton & Co., 549 and 551 Broad- 
way, New York. Kirk's Hand Book of Physiology; published by 
Henry C. Lea, Philadelphia. Cutter's Anatomy, Physiology and 
Hygiene, by J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia. Dalton's Phys- 
iology and Hygiene and Draper's Physiology ; published by Harper 
and Brothers, New York. Steele's Fourteen Weeks in Physiology; 
published by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, Chicago and New 
Orleans. Huxley and Youman's Physiology and Hygiene; pub- 
lished by D. Appleton & Co., New York. First Lessons in Phys- 
iology ; published by The Central Publishing Company, St. Louis. 

Theory and Practice : Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching, 
Phelp's Teacher's Hand Book, Holbrook's Normal Methods, Hol- 
brook's School Management, Hecker's Scientific Basis of Education, 
Chadbourne's Lectures, History and Progress of Education, Jewell's 
School Government; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York 
and Chicago. Wickersham's Methods of Instruction, Wickersham's 
School Economy ; published by J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadel- 
phia. Sizer's How to Teach According to Temperament and Men- 
tal Development; published by S. R. Wells & Co., 737 Broadway, 
New York. DeGralfs School Room Guide; published by Davis, 



Bardeen & Co., Syracuse, New York. Royce's Deterioration and 
Race Education; published by Lee & Shepard, Boston, Mass. 
Johonnot's Principles and Practice of Teaching; published by D. 
Appleton & Co., New York. Essays on Educational Reformers, by 
R. H. Quick; published by Robert Clarke & Co., Cincinnati, O. 
Northend's Teacher and Parent; published by Jenks, Hickling & 
Swan, 131 Washington Street, Boston. Our National System of 
Education, by John C. Henderson, Jr. ; published by Dodd, Mead 
& Co., 751 Broadway, New York. Combe on the Constitution of 
Man ; published by S.R. Wells & Co., 737 Broadway, N. Y. Education, 
by Herbert Spencer; published by D. Appleton & Company, Broad- 
way, New York. Pedagogics as a System, by Dr. Karl Rosenkranz ; 
published by the R. P. Stuckley Company, Printers, corner Main 
and Olive Streets, St. Louis, Mo. Emerson's Watts on the Improve- 
ment of the Mind; published by Hickling, Swan& Brewer, Boston, 
Ingham & Bragg, Cleveland. Powell on Man ; published by Rob- 
ert Clark & Co., Cincinnati. Sypher's Art of Teaching School ; 
published by J. M. Stoddart & Co., J. A. Bancroft & Co., 
Chicago and, Indianapolis, A. H. Andrew's & Co., a Western 
Publishing and School Furnishing Co., St. Louis. The School 
and the School Master, by Alonzo Potter; published by Harper 
& Brothers, Franklin Square, New York. Ranch's Psychology; 
published by M. W. Dodel, New York, Crocker & Brewster, Boston; 
Thomas Cowperthwait & Co., Philadelphia. 

Civil Government: Wayland's Elements of Political Economy; 
published by Sheldon & Company, 8 Murray Street, New York. 
Truman Hastings' Law for the Masses ; published by W. F. Schnei- 
der, 314-220 Woodland Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio. Champlin's Po- 
litical Economy; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., Ill and 118 
William St., cor . John, New York. James N. McElligott's Ameri- 
can Debater; published by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., 138 
and 140 Grand Street, New York, 133 and 135 State Street, Chica- 
go. The Voter's Text Book, by James M. Hiatt ; published by Asher, 
Adams & Higgins, Indianapolis, Ind. John S. Hart's Brief Expo- 
ition of the Constitution of the United States; published by J. H. 
Butler & Co., Philadelphia. Politics for Young Americans, by 
Charles Nordhoff; published by Harper & Brothers, Franklin Square, 
New York. 

More extensive works than the above might have been profitably 
used in connection with the preparation of this book, but we pre- 
ferred to limit our references to works in immediate use in common 
schools. 



QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1. Define Orthography. 

2. What is an elementary sound ? 

3. How many elementary sounds in the English lan- 
guage, and how are they represented ? 

4. Give their classification. 

5. Define vocals, sub-vocals and aspirates, and ex- 
plain the terms correlatives, liquids, coalescents, explo- 
dents and continuents. 

6. What is a letter ? 

7. How are letters divided ? 

8. What fiirther division can be made? 

9. Name and define the vowels and consonants, 

10. When are w and y vowels ? 

11. How are consonants distinguished? 

12. Name and define the Semi -vowels and Mutes. 

13. What do you understand by the Liquids ? 

14. How do letters differ in the variety of their re- 
presentation ? 

15. Of what uses are silent letters? 

16. When are letters said to be /<?;/^ and when shortf 

17. How do letters combine to form sounds? 

18. What is the name of a letter? 

19. What is the pozver of a letter ? 

20. When two or more letters unite what do they 
form? 

2 1 . What is a final letter? 

22. How are vowels united ? 



12 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

23. Name and define the classes oi diphthongs and 
triphthongs? 

24. How are consonants united ? 

25. Do \owel and consonant .sounds unite? 

26. Define Digraph and Trigraph, 

27. What is a syllable ? 

28. What is the essential part of a syllable? 

29. Of what may a syllable consist ? 

30. Give a model for analyzing syllables. 

31. What is a word ? 

32. How are words classified ? 

33. What is accent ? 

34. What is an accented syllable ? 

35. How is accent denoted ? 

36. What does a difference of accent sometimes 

serve to do ? 

37. What difference is found in the accentuation of 

compound words ? 

38. When is the hyphen generally used between the 
parts of a compound word, and when is it commonly 
omitted ? 

39. What words have an accent ? 

40. Which may the accented syllable be ? 

41. How many and what kinds of accent are there? 

42. Mention the significant parts of a word. 

43. What is a root ? 

44. Define prefix and suffix. 

45. How would you analyze a word according to its 
significant parts? 

46. What is pronunciation ? 

47. What is spelling ? 

48. Name and define the kinds of spelling. 

49. Give rules for spelling. 

50. Give a method of orthographic parsing. 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOG- 
RAPHY. 



1. Orthography treats of elementary sounds, letters, 
syllables and spelling. 

Harvey s English G^'ammaf, p. 7, art. 8. 

2. An elementary sound is the simplest sound ofthe 
language. 

Greene's English Grammar, p. 7^, art. i. 

3. Forty-one.* These sounds are represented by 
twenty-six letters called the English Alphabet. 

Cla7'k's Normal Grammar, p. ii. 

4. These sounds are divided into three classes; — vo- 
cals, sub-vocals and aspirates. 

CHART OF THE ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 



LO 


NO VOC^ 


LLS. 




SHORT 


VOCALS. 


I. 


e, as 


in me, eve. 


9- 


1, 


as in ill, it. 


2. 

3- 


a, " 


serge, verge, 
aim, ale. 


10. 
II. 


e, 
0, 




ell, let. 
odd, not. 


4- 
5. 


a, " 


air, care, 
arm, farm. 


12. 
13- 


a, 




up, sup. 
add, sad. 


6. 


6, " 


or, for. 


14. 


a, 




ask, task. 


7- 
8. 


0, " 


oak, no. 
ooze, do. 


15. 


V, 




full, pull. 






DIPHTHONGS. 








16. 


1, as 


in ice, I'e. 


18. 


^j 


as 


in mute, tube. 


17. 


oi, 


* oil, boil. 


19. 


ou, ' 


' out, sound. 


• Authorities differ as to the number of elementary sounds. From the 
works which we haye consulted, we find the number griven varying from forty 
to forty-four. 





THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 




SUB-VOCALS. — Gorrelatitu, 


20. 


b, as in boy, ebb. 


21. 


d, " did, rod. 


22. 


g, " go, rag. 


23- 


g, " gem Judge. 


24. 


V, " veer, valve. 


25- 


th, " this, breathe. 


26. 


z, " zone, zeal. 


2/. 


zh, " azure, seizure. 




SUB- VOCALS.— i/i quids. 


28. 


1, as in lo, will. 


29. 


r, " row, roar. 


30. 


m, " moon, home. 


31- 


n, " no, moon. 


32. 


ng, " sing, ring. 




8UB- VOCALS. — Goaleaeetuts, 


33. 


w, as in we, wit. 


34. 


y, " yet, you. 




ASPIRATES. SxplodenU, 


35. 


p, as in pin, pipe. 


36. 


t, " till, spot. 


37. 


k, " kick, neck. 


38. 


oh, " church, which. 




ASPIRATES.— COTKinUflllte. 


39- 


f, as in fife, stiff. 


40. 


th, " think, breath. 


41 


s, " see, pass. 


42. 


sh, ** shine, wish. 


43- 


h, " he, hat. 


44. 


wh, " whence, what. 



Science of Elocutioji, Hamill, pp, 22 and 2 J, 
5. The vocals consist of pure tone only. The sub- 
vocals consist of tone united with breath. The Aspi- 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 16 

rates consist of pure breath only. Correlatives are so 
called because each pair is formed with the same posi- 
tion of the organs. Liquids are so called because they 
flow readily into other sounds. Coalescents are so 
called because they unite with the sounds of other let- 
ters. Explodents are so called because they are incap- 
able of prolongation. Continuants are so called because 
they are capable of prolongation. 

Greene's English Grammar ^pp, i^, /j and i6, 

6. A letter is a character that stands for a sound of 
the human voice used in speaking. 

Quackenbos's English Grammar, p. 8, 

7. Letters are divided, — 

(a.) In respect to their forms, into capitals zxi<\ small 
letters. 

(b.) In respect to the sounds they represent, into 
vnwels and consonants, 

Greene's English Grammar y p. 18, 

8. The forms of letters may be divided as to 
(a.) Varieties into 

1. Italic. 

2. Roman. 

8. ©Iti OBngUsf)* 

4. ^-^j^ 

(b.) Sizes into 

1. Grreat Primer. 

2. Columbian. 
3. English. 

4. Pica. 



16 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

5. Small Pica. 

6. Long Primer. 
7. Bourgeois. 

8. Brevier. 

9. Minion. 

10. Nonpareil. 

11. Agate. 

12. Pearl. 

13. Siftmond. 

14. BRILLIANT. 

As to sounds, letters are divided into vowels and con- 
sonants. 

Clark's Normal Grammar^ pp. ii^ I2y ij and 14.. 
9. The vowels represent pure vocal sounds. The 
vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

The consonants represent sub-vocal sounds and aspi- 
rates. The consonants are b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, 
p, q, r, s, t, V, w, X, y, z. 

ld.,p, 14, 

10. W and y sometimes represent vocals, and are 
then vowels. 

Id.fp. 14. 

11. Consonants are distinguished 
J Semi-vowels and 

^^^\ Mutes. 

Id., p. 14. 

12. Semi-vowels may represent sounds without the 
aid of a vowel. They are f, h, j, 1, m, n, r, s, v, x, z, and 
c and g soft. Mutes (b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard) 
can not be sounded without the aid of a vowel. 

Id., p. 14, 

13. L, m, n, and r, are called Liquids, because the 
sounds represented by t\iQm flow readily into similar or 
other sounds. 

Id., p. 14, 

14. (a.) Generally a letter represents a peculiar 
sound. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 17 

(b.) Some letters represent more than one sound. 

(c.) Sometimes different letters represent the same 
sound. 

(d.) Sometimes a letter is used that does not re- 
present any sound. 

Id,, p. ip 

15. Silent letters are used — 

(a.) To modify the sounds of other letters. 
(b.) To denote the origin or definition of the word. 

Id., p. 14.. 

16. A letter is said to be long when its sound can be 
protracted at will, as <3: in say — ay. 

A letter is said to be short when the sound repre- 
sented by it can not be protracted, as a in hat. 

Id., p. 15. 

17. Some letters combine — 
(a.) To form one sound. 

(b.) To form a combination of sounds. 

Id., p. IS. 

18. The name of a letter is the term or appellation 
by which it is known. 

Greene's English Grammar, p. 18, 

19. The power of a letter is the elementary sound 
which it represents. 

Id., p. 18, 

20. When two or more letters unite, to represent a 
union of elementary sounds, they form a combination of 
letters. 

Id.,p, 2j. 

21. A final letter is one that ends a word. T is fin- 
al in rat 

Id,p.2j, 

22. The union of two vowels in one syllable is called 
a diphthong; the union of three vowels in one syllable is 
called a triphthong. Id., pp. 2^-24. 

2 



18 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

23. Diphthongs are divided into two classes, /n?/^^ 
and improper. 

A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels are 
sounded. 

An improper diphthong is one in which one of the 
vowels is silent. 

Triphthongs are also divided into two classes, pro- 
per and improper, 

A proper triphthong is one in which the three vowels 
are sounded. 

An improper triphthong is one in which one or two 
of the vowels are silent. 

Id., pp. 23-2^. 

24. Two or more consonants are said to unite when 
their sounds coalesce. 

Id.y p. 24.. 

25. Any consonant sound may unite with a vowel 
sound. 

Id., p. 25. 

26. A Digraph is a union of two vowels in one sylla- 
ble, in which only one of the vowels is sounded. A 
Trigraph is a union of three vowels in one syllable, not 
all of which are sounded. 

Clark's Normal Grammar., p» 15. 

27. A syllable is a sound or a combination of sounds 
uttered with a single impulse of the voice. 

Butler's Practical and Critical Grammar , p. 18, 

28. The essential part of a syllable is a vowel. 

Greene's English Grammar , p, 2^. 

29. A syllable may consist, — 
(a.) Of a vowel. 

Ex. — -^-cre, ^/-ther. 

(b.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants pre- 
fixed 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 19 

Ex. — ^^-sls, bri-QV, phtht-s\s. 

(c.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants af- 
fixed. 

Ex. — In, elf, intQT-ests, earths. 

(d.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants both 
prefixed and affixed. 

Ex. — N-oo-n, tr-y\-th, ihr-nsts. 

Id., p. 2$. 

30. Models for Analyzing Syllables. 

An is a syllable consisting of two elements : 

A is the essential element, it is a vowel. (Give its 
sound.) 

iV is a consonant, and represents a sub- vocal; it is 
affixed to a^ which it modifies. (Give its sound.) 

Break is a syllable consisting of three parts: — 

Ea is the essential part, — it is a diphthong (why ?), 
improper (why?); e is silent, — a only is sounded. (Give 
its sound.) 

Br is a union of two consonants, both representing 
sub-vocals, b and r, which are prefixed to ea. (Give their 
sounds separately, then together.) 

^ is a consonant representing an aspirate, and is 
affixed to ea. [Give its sound.] 

Analyze the following syllables and describe each 
element : — 

Kite, dog, numb, boat, friend, truth, day, wax, hat, 
view, sound, aid, meet, suit. 

Id., p. 26. 

31. A word is a syllable or a combination of sylla- 
bles used as the sign of some idea. 

Butler's Practical and Critical Grammar, p. 18. 

32. I. Words are classified according to the number 
of syllables they contain, as follows : 

I. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable. 



20 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Ex. — Boy, pen, tire. 

2. A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable. 
Ex. — Na-tnn\faitJi-fitl. 

3. A word of three S3dlables is called a trisyllable. 
Ex. — A at-u ■ ral^ faith-fiil-ness. 

4. A word of four or more syllables is called a 
polysyllable. 

Ex. — Un-nat- u-ral, un-faith-ful-ness. 

Gfeene's Eiiglish Grainmaf, p. 28. 
II. Words are divided according to their forma- 
tion into simple, compound, primitive and derivative. 

1. A Simple Word is one which is not formed by 
uniting two or more words ; disjtand, paper, father. 

2. A Compound Word is one which is formed by 
the union of two or more simple words ; 2,^^ hand-ma- 
chine, newspaper. The words forming a compound are 
sometimes connected by the hyphen [-] ; 2iS^ father-in- 
law. 

3. A Primitive Word is one which is not formed 
from any other word in the same language, but is in its 
first or simplest form; as, sin, wind, lady. 

4. A Derivative Word is one which is formed from 
a primitive word by some change, or by prefixing or 
suffixing another syllable or word ; as, sinful, windy. 

FewsmitU s English Grammar, p, 13. 

33. Accent is a stress of voice laid on a certain syl- 
lable when a word is uttered. 

Quackenbos's English Grammar, p. 12. 

34. The syllable that receives the stress is said to be 
accented. 

Id., p. 12, art. 14. 

35. It may be denoted by a mark called the Acute 
Accent ['], placed above it to the right ; as, lem'on, en- 
grave'. Id., p. 12, art. 14. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 21 

36. A difference of accent sometimes serves to dis- 
tinguish words spelled alike but differing in meaning* 
Thus Au'gust is the eighth month ; august' is grave, ma- 
jestic. 

Id., p. 12. 

37. In some compounds, there is but one accent ; as 
gen' tlemau, pi aise' worthy. In others, each of the words 
compounded retains its accent ; as, writ' ing-mas' tef ^ 
ma n 'y-col' ored. 

Id., p. 13, art, 17. 

38. When there are more accents than one, the parts 
of the compound are generally connected with a short 
horizontal line [-], called the Hyphen. When there is 
but one accent in the compound, the hyphen is common- 
ly omitted. 

Id,, p. 13. 

39. Every word of more than one syllable has one of 
its syllables accented. 

Greene's Eiiglish Grammar, p. 28, art. 7. 

40. The accented syllable may be either the first, the 
last, or a middle syllable. 

Id., p. 28, art, 8. 

41. Two. Primary and Secondary. 

Ex. — In" defatHgable, in" co7nprehe7i' sible. 

Id., p, 28, art. 9. 

42. A word in reference to its significant parts must 
contain a root, and may contain a prefix or a suffix. 

Id., p. 28, art. 10. 

43. A root, or radical, is either a word, or that part 
of a word which is modified by a prefix or a suffix. 

Ex. — Fair^ un-fair, un-fair-nQss, 

Id., p. 29, art. II. 

44. A prefix is that part of a word which is placed 
before the root to modify its meaning. 



22 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Ex. — i?^-turn, pr^-pay, 7.in-fit. 

A suffix is that part of a word which is placed after 
a root to modify its meaning. 

Ex. — Heart less^ child-^^^^d, good-;?^^^. 

Id., p. 29, arts. 12 and 13. 

45. In analyzing a word according to its significant 
parts, point out the root, then the prefix or the sufifix, 
and show how it modifies the root. 

Id.y p. 29. 

46. Pronunciation is the utterance of the sounds of a 
word, with proper articulation and accent. 

VVolfards Practical Speller, /. II. 

47. Spelling is the act of expressing, in pr oper or- 
der, according to established authority, the letters or 
sounds of which a word is composed. 

Id.y p. 10. 

48. There are three kinds of spelling; viz: Phonic, 
Oral, and Written. 

Phonic Spelling is the expression, in proper order, of 
the sounds of which a word is composed. 

Oral (Orthographic) Spelling is the expression by the 
mouth, in proper order, of the letters of which a word 
is composed. 

Written Spelling is the expression, in written charac- 
ters, in proper order, of the letters of which a word is 
composed. 

Id,, pp, 10 and il. 

49. 

I. GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING. 

1. Write no word unless sure of its orthography 
and signification. 

2. Consult the dictionary in case of doubt 

3. Apply the rules for derivatives. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 23 

II. SPECIAL RULES FOR SPELLING. 

1. Words which end with a consonant, preceded by 
a single vowel, and which are accented on the last syl- 
able, double the final letter on taking an additional sylla- 
ble beginning with a vowel. 

Remark. — Xand h are never doubled. 

2. Words which end with a consonant, preceded 
by a diphthong, or a digraph representing a vowel sound, 
and words which are ;2^/ accented on the last syllable, do 
not double the final letter on taking an additional sylla- 
ble. . ' 

Exceptions. — Many words which are not accented 
on the last syllable, ending with s or /, often double the 
final consonant contrary to analogy; as,travel, travelling. 

3. Words which end with e generally retain it on 
taking an additional syllable beginning with a consonant. 

Exceptions. — Judgment, lodgment. 

Remark. — When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is 
sometimes retained and sometimes dropped ; as, true, 
truly. 

4. Words which end with e generally omit it on 
taking an additional syllable beginning with a vowel. 

Exceptions. — Words ending with ^r^ or ^^ retain ^be- 
iore the terminations able and ous, to preserve the soft 
sound of ^ and g; as, peace, peaceable ; courage, courage- 
ous, etc. Dyeing retains the e to distmguish it from 
dying. 

5. Words which end with ie drop the e and change 
i into J/ on taking the syllable ing. 

6. Words which end with 7, preceded by a conso- 
nant, change y into i on taking an additional syllable. 

Exceptions. — Before i7ig, y is retained; as, pity, 
pitying. 

7. The digraph ei follows c soft; ie is found after 



24 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

the other consonants. Ei begins words; ie is found at 
the end of words. 

Holbrookes English Grammar, pp. 22,2^, and 25, arts, no 
and 116. ' 
50. The following method of orthographic parsing 
is by far the best method we have ever seen: 
Words analyzed: Pin and Impossibility. 
Pin is a simple, primitive monosyllable. Spelled 
orthographically [naming the letters] p, i, n,and phoni- 
cally [enunciating the sounds] p, i, n. 

Impossibility is a simple derivative polysyllable, ac- 
cented on the fourth and second syllables. Possible, the 
base of the word, is modified by the prefix im, signify- 
ing not, and the suffix ity, signifying the state or condi- 
tion. The word signifies, ''that which cannot be." It is 
spelled, orthographically, i, m, p, o, s, s, i, b, i, 1, i, t, y, 
and phonically, i, m, p, 6, s, 1, b, i, 1, i, t, i. 

I is a vowel, the base of the first syllable, repre- 
senting its own short sound i, [enunciate,] which is a 
short, simple vocal. 

M is a consonant, and the consequent of the base 
of the first syllable, representing its own sound, m; 
[enunciate,] which is a sub -vocal, obstructed at the lips 
by a partial contact of the organs, producing a labial, a 
continuant, and a nasal. 

P is a consonant and the antecedent of the base of 
the second syllable, representing its own sound, p; 
[enunciate] which is an aspirate, obstructed at the lips 
by a perfect contact of the organs, producing a Irabial 
and an abrupt. 

O, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, rep- 
resenting its own short sound 6; [enunciate,] which is a 
short, simple vocal. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 25 

S is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of 
the second syllable, representing its own proper sound, 
s; [enunciate,] which is an aspirate, obstructed at the 
gums by a partial contact of the organs, producing a 
dental and a continuant. 

I, the base of the third syllable, is a vowel, repre- 
senting its own short sound, i; [enunciate,] which is a 
short, simple vocal. 

B is a consonant, and the antecedent of the base of 
the fourth syllable, representing its own proper sound, b; 
[enunciate,] which is a sub-vocal, obstructed at the lips 
by a perfect contact of the organs, producing a labial and 
an abrupt. 

I, the base of the fourth syllable, is a vowel, repre- 
senting its own short sound, i; [enunciate,] which is a 
short, simple vocal. 

L is a consonant, and the consequent of the base 
of the fourth syllable, representing its own proper 
sound, 1; [enunciate,] which is a sub-vocal, obstructed at 
the hard palate by a partial contact of the organs, pro- 
ducing a palatal, a continuant, and a liquid. 

I, the base of the fifth syllable, is a vowel, repre- 
senting its own short sound, i; [enunciate,] which is a 
short, simple vocal, modified at the teeth. 

T is a consonant, and the antecedent of the base of 
the sixth syllable, representing its own proper sound, t; 
[enunciate,] which is an aspirate, obstructed at the teeth 
or gums by a perfect contact of the organs, producing a 
dental and an abrupt. 

Y, the base of the sixth syllable, is a vowel, repre- 
senting the short sound of i, i; [enunciate,] which is a 
short, simple vocal, modified at the teeth. 

Id,ypp, 26, 29, and 30, arts. 119, and 121. 



QUESTIONS ON READING. 



1. Define Reading. 

2. What mental qualifications must a good reader 

possess and employ? 

3 What are the physical requisites for good reading? 

4. What, then, does good reading demand? 

5. What objects are to be aimed at in the study and 
teaching of reading ? 

6. What is Articulation ? 

7. How can a good articulation be acquired? 

8. What is Phonetic Analysis? 

9. What is an elementary sound? 

10. Into what classes are the elementary sounds of 
the English language divided? 

11. Define Vocals. 

12. Give some directions for articulating vocal 
sounds. 

13. Give a chart of vocal sounds. 

14. Define Subvocals. 

15. Give directions for articulating Subvocal sounds. 

16. Give a chart of Subvocal sounds. 

17. Define Aspirates. 

18. Give directions for articulating Aspirates. 

19. Give a chart of Aspirate sounds. 

20. Give a list of the most common faults in Articu- 
lation. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 27 

21. Give a good plan for explaining Elementary 
sounds to beginners. 

22. How are the divisions of syllables marked? 

23. Give a plan for drilling pupils in Articulation. 

24. What is Emphasis? 

25. What is the object of Emphasis? 

26. How is this accomplished? 

27. Name and define the kinds of Emphasis. 

28. How are emphatic words printed? 

29. What is Accent? 

30. How is the Accented syllable designated? 

31. Name and define the kinds of Accent 

32. What are Inflections? 

33. Define each. 

34. Give rules for the use of Inflections. 

35. What is a Series? 

36. What is a commencing Series, and what a con- 
cluding Series ? 

37. What is a Circumflex? 

38. Give an outline of the subject of vocal culture, 

39. What is Transition? 

40. What is Monotone? 

41. Define Monotony. 

42. What is Modulation? 

43. How is the voice modulated? 

44. How many degrees of variation in pitch? 

45. What can you say of quantity? 

46. What is the difference between quantity and 
pitch? 

47. What is quality? 

48. What is force? 

49. What is the diflference between force and em- 
phasis? 

50. What is stress? 



28 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

51. What is cadence? 



52 
53 
54 

55 
56 

57 
58 
59 



What is climax? 

Define grouping. 

What is personation? 

What are rhetorical pauses? 

Name the rhetorical points. 

Name and define the other classes of points. 

Give rules for the use of capitals. 

Give a principle of reading that will admit of gen- 



eral application. 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON READ- 
ING. 

1. Reading is the interpretation and expression of 
the thoughts, sentiments, and feelings of an author. 

Fertich's Instructive Elocution, p. IJ, 

2. A good reader or speaker must possess and em- 
ploy— 

1. A clear conception. 

2. A vivid imagination. 

3. Real sympathy. 

4. Good imitation. 

5. Vocal power. 

6. Artistic skill. 

7. Good judgment. /</.,/. 70. 

3. The requisites of good reading arc — 

1. Distinct articulation. 

2. Full and free respiration. 

3. Perfect control of a clear, full, round, musical 
tone of voice. 

4. Graceful and expressive action. 

5. Cultivated taste and judgment. 

Hamiirs Science of Elocution, p, ig, 

4. Good reading demands, in a special manner, at- 
tention to the following particulars, viz. — 

Articulation, Accent, Emphasis, Inflection, Mod- 
ulation, and Pauses. 

Sander^ s Rhetorical Reader^ p ij, 

89 



80 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

5. The objects to be aimed at In the study of read- 
ing, and of course in teaching it, are — 

1. The acquisition of general knowledge. 

2. The acquisition of a love for reading. 

3. The improvement of the memory, j udgment and 
taste. 

4. Improvement of the social faculties. 

5. Improvement of the health. 

6. A graceful carriage and address. 

7. A preparation for public life. 

8. The prevention and correction of improprieties. 
Holbfook's Normal Methods^ pp. j^f8, j^g, j^o. 

6. Articulation is the utterance of the elementary 
sounds of a language, and of their combinations in 
words. 

Harvey s Graded-School Fifth Reader, p. 10. 

7. To acquire a good articulation, attention must be 
paid to exercises upon elementary sounds and their com- 
binations, and to the phonetic analysis of syllables and 
words. 

Id., p. 10, 

8. Phonetic Analysis is the separation of syllables 
and words into the elementary sounds of which they are 
composed. 

Id., p. 12. 

9. An elementary sound is a simple, distinct sound 
made by the organs of speech. 

Id., p, 10. 

10. The elementary sounds of the English language 
are divided into Vocals, Subvocals, and Aspirates. 

Id., p. 10, 

11. Vocals consist of pure tone. K diphtJiong \^ a 
union of two vocals, commencing with one and ending 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 81 

with the other. Vocals are the prominent elements of 
all words. Id,y p. lo. 

12. 

1. Let the mouth be open, and the teeth, tongue, 
and palate in their proper position. 

2. Pronounce one of the words in the Chatt in a 
forcible, affirmative tone, several times in succession. 

3. Drop the subvocal or aspirate sounds which 
precede or follow the vocal, and repeat the vocals a] one. 

4. Have the class, at first, repeat the words and 
sounds in concert. 

5. Have each pupil to articulate them separately. 

Id.,p,il, 

CHART OF VOCAL SOUNDS. 

Long Sounds. 

13- 

A, a, as in ate, late, mate, baker, labor, favon 
A, d, as in air, fair, hare, mare, share. 
A, a, as in are, far, ark, dahlia, harp, harsh. 
A, a, as in after, branch, pass, plaster. 

A, a> as in all, fall, haul, call, walk. 

E, e, as in eve, we, deep, sere, hear, receive. 

E, 6, as in Srr, Srst, Srmine, prefer. 

I, i, as in ire, time, tide, combine, file, write. 

O, 0, as in over, no, told, vote, control, mode. 

00, (50, as in do5m, C(5&1, bl(50m, moon, gro&m. 
U, 11, as in use, unit, music, refuse, involute. 
U, (i, as in iirn, urge, burn, fur. 

U, u> when preceded by r, as in rule, frugal, trvjC. 

Short Sounds. 
A, a, as in cat, at, man, and, natural. 
E, e, as in elk, rent, dense, wen, fled. 

1, i, as in ink, wit, din, whim, trivial. 



82 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK, 

O, 6, as in on, dot, rob, moral, resolve. 
U, ii, as in iis, iigly, but, miig, hiisky. 

00. 66, as in g66d, hook, cooper, f66t, book. 

Diphthongs. 
Oi, oi, as in oil, coin, choice, quoit. 
Ou, ou, as in bound, proud, out, rouse, cow. 

Id., pp. I \-\2. 

IS- 

1. Pronounce distinctly and forcibly, several times 

in succession, words in which they occur as final ele- 
ments. 

2. Drop the other sounds, and repeat the subvo- 
cals alone. 

3. Repeat the words and elements, at first in con- 
cert ; then separately. 

Id.,p, 12. 

CHART OF SUBVOCAL SOUNDS. 

16^ Subvocals with Correlatives. 

B, b, as in ebb, riib, babe, tube, robe, 
D, d, as in add, bed, rod, biid. 
G, g, as in nag, rig, fog, beg, riig. 
J, j, as in jiidge, niidge, ledge, griidge. 
V, V, as in rave, give, rove, gl6ve. 
Th, th, as in beneath, breathe, with, thine.' 
Z, z, as in raze, size, Igse, rose, use. 
Zh, zh, as in measure, azure, leisure. 

Subvocals with no Correlatives, 
N, n, as in man, son, fin, riin. 
M, m, as in name, home, grim, flume. 
Ng, ng, as in sang, fling, wrong, rung. 
L, 1, as in fall, mill, roll, giill. 
R, r, as in far, sir, soar, sliir. 
R, r, as in rear, driim, roam, rill. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 33 

W, w, as in wear, woof, wile, wTsh, will. 
Y, y, as in year, yes, you, yeoman. 

Id., pp. 12-11. 
17. Aspirates consist of breath only, modified by the 
vocal organs. 

Id., p. 13. 
18. 

1. Pronounce, several times in succession, words 
in which aspirate sounds occur as initial or final ele- 
ments. 

2. Drop the other sounds, and repeat the aspirates 
alone. 

3. Repeat the words and elements, at first, in con- 
cert ; then separately. 

Id., p, I J. 

19, CHART OF ASPIRATE SOUNDS. 

F, f, as in life, quaff, skiff, scoff, riiff. 
H, h, as in hay, hive, hope, humid. 
K, k, as in rake, book, rick, muck, rock. 
P, p, as in rap, lip, hop, iip, gallop. 
S, s, as in m^ss, kiss, loss, fuss. 
T, t, as in at, flit, mote, lute, submit. 
Sh, sh, as in rash, wish, bosh, mush, shore. 
Ch, ch, as in match, rich, roach, much. 
Th, th. as in thank, loth, throne, ruth, wroth. 
Wh, wh, as in whale, what, whip, why, whimper. 

Id., p. I J. 
20. 

1. Suppression of vocal sounds in unaccented syl- 
lables. 

2. Suppression of subvocal and aspirate sounds. 

3. Incorrect articulation of vocal sounds. 

4. Omission and addition of syllables. 



S4 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

5. Blending the end of one word with the begin- 
ning of the next. Id,, pp. 18, 19 and 20. 

21. Take, for example, the word map, in which there 
are as many sounds as there are letters. Print it on the 
board : 

MAP. — m-m-m a-a-a p-p-p map. 
After the separate sounds of this word are perfectly- 
understood, select one with a new element in it, and ex- 
ercise pupils on that ; first calling on them to say wheth- 
er it has as many sounds as it has letters. 
MAN. — m-m-m a-a-a n-n-n man. 
Proceed now to illustrate the fact that, owing to the 
poverty of our alphabet and the capricious irregularities 
in our modes of forming words by letters, the same let- 
ter, a, is used for a variety of sounds. 

This may be shown in make, car^ fall, etc. Show 
that one device for helping us out has been to attach a 
silent vowel letter (as in ;;^^^^=m-a-k) to indicate the 
long sound of <3: in a large class of words. 
MAKE. — m-m-m a-a-a k-k-k make. 
In the word car we have the sounds of k^ a in fath- 
if and smooth or untrilled r. 

CAR. — k-k-k a-a-a r-r-r car. 

Here it may be illustrated that the presence of r 
should give a slight, but not a too formal, difference to 
our enunciation of such words as alms and arms, balm 
2ind/arm. 

In the word tkaw there are only two elementary 
sounds, namely, aspirate tk and the sound of a in fall. 
Call upon pupils to designate the elementary sounds in 
the following words : trough (trof ), enough^ physic, child 
shine, thin, thine, sleigh, calf, autumn^ awe, aught, height^ 
freight, prove ^ prone, laugJi, spiiere. 

New American Foutth Reader, pp, 6-y, 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 86 

22. By pauses and repetitions. 

23- 

First. Pronounce the vowel e, extending the lips as 
much as possible sidewise, and showing the tips of the 
teeth. 

Second, Pronounce ah, dropping the jaw and 
opening the mouth to its widest extent. 

ThUd. Pronounce oo (as in cool) contracting the 
lips. 

Then, the teacher having drawn upon the black- 
board a triangle with the three sounds indicated at the 
angles, let him pass the "pointer" around in a circle, 
touching at the angles, and require the pupils to utter 
the vowels, as he indicates them, in rapid succession, 
continuously^ that is, without pausing between them. 
Having gone around three or four times in one direc- 
tion, make a signal for the pupils to stop ; then taking 
a fresh breath, reverse the exercise. 

E 




A HZ \0 

Proceed in like manner, taking each of the other 
angles as a starting point. We shall thus have repeti- 
tions of each of the following : E-ah-oo\ e-oo-ah\ ah-e-oo; 
ah'Oo-e; oo-ah-e\ oo-e-ah. 



36 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

After the above has been practised for a minute or 
two, exercises like the following may be taken up imme- 
diately. The teacher pronounces one word at a time 
with the utmost 'precision, and requires the pupils to re- 
peat with an exaggerated movement of the lips and jaws. 
Next, phrases, and finally complete sentences, are ut- 
tered , great care being taken to give elastic spring and 
play to the muscles of articulation. The one injunction 
which needs to be enforced upon the mumbler is, open 

THE MOUTH AND MOVE THE LIPS. 

ARTICULATION OF SINGLE WORDS. 

I . . know . . of . . no . . way . . of . . judging 
. . of . . the . . future . . but . . by . . the past. 

ARTICULATION OF PHRASES. 

In every period of life . . the acquisition of knowl- 
edge . . is one of the most pleasing employments . . of 
the human mind. 

ARTICULATION OF SENTENCES. 

The greater the difficulty, the more glory there is 
in surmounting it ; skilful pilots gain their reputation 
from storms and tempests. 

Monroe's Fifth Reader, pp. 25, 26 and 27. 

24. Emphasis is a special stress of voice upon one 
or more words of a sentence, to give them the promi- 
nence and importance the author intends. 

Graded School Fifth Reader, (Hayvey), /. 32. 

25. The object of emphasis is to attract particular 
attention to the word or phrase upon which it is placed, 
thus indicating that the idea intended to be conveyed de- 
pends very much upon that word or phrase. 

Id., p. 32. 

26. This is sometimes accomplished by an unusual 
lowering of the voice, even to a whisper; but most fre- 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 37 

quently by an increased stress laid upon the word or 
phrase to be emphasized. 

Id., p. 12. 

27. Emphasis is either absolute or relative. 

When the emphasis is independent of any contrast 
or comparison with other words or ideas, it is called ab- 
solute emphasis. 

Where there is antithesis, either expressed or im- 
plied, the emphasis is called relative. 

Id., pp. 32 and II, 

28. Emphatic words are often printed in Italics. 
When, however, different degrees of emphasis are to be 
denoted, the higher degrees are designated by the use 
of Capitals, LARGER or smaller, according to the 
degree of intensity. 

Sander's Rhetorical Reader., p. 22. 

29. Accent is that stress of voice by which one syllO' 
ble of a word is made more prominent than others. 

Id., p. 21. 

30. The accented syllable is designated thus: (') ; as, 
cofn-mand' -ment. • 

Id., p. 21. 

31. Primary and Secondary. The more forcible 
stress of voice, is called the Primary Accent \ and the 
less forcible, the Secondary Accent. 

Id., p. 21. 

32. Inflections are slides of the voice upward or 
downward. Of these there are two : the rising inflection 
dind falling inflection. 

McGuffefs Eclectic Fifth Readef, p. 13. 

33. The Rising Inflection is that in which the 
voice slides upwa}d, and is marked thus (^) ;as, Did you 
walk^? (Did you walk?) 

The Falling Inflection is that in which the voice 



38 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK, 

slides downward^ and is marked thus (^) ; as, I did not 
walk'. (I did not walk.) 

Id.,p. I J. 

34. 

1. Emphatic words, and words denoting a comple- 
tion of the sense, generally require the falling inflection. 

2. Words concluding negations and direct ques- 
tions, or words used by way of direct address, require 
the rising inflection ; but if repeated emphatically, the 
falling inflection is proper. • 

3. Words concluding indirect questions, require 
the falling inflection ; but, if repeated emphatically, the 
rising inflection is proper. 

4. Each member of a commencing series general- 
ly requires the falling inflection, except the last, which 
should have the rising inflection. 

5. Each member of a concluding series generally 
requires the falling inflection, except the last but one, 
which should have the rising inflection. 

FerticKs Instructive Elocution, pp . 2/j., 2^, 26 and 2y, 

35. A series is a succession of particulars in a dis- 
course. 

Id., p. 26. 

36. A series in the beginning or middle of a sentence 
is called a commencing series. A series which concludes 
a sentence is called a concluding series. 

Id., p, 26, 

37. The circumflex is a union of the two inflections 
on the same word, beginning either with th.Q falling 
and ending with the rising, or with the rising Siud ending 
with the falling. 

Sander's Rhetorical Reader^ p. 34. 



38. 



Quality. 



THE :normal questio:n book. 



ELEMENTS OF EXPRESSION. 

Pure Tone. 

C Effusive. 
Orotund. -{ Expulsive, p., , 



Force. < 



Aspirated. 
Guttural. 
Nasal. 
Oral. 

Subdued. 

Moderate. 

Energetic. 



(Expl 



osive. 



s» 



f Low. 
Very Low. 

I Middle. 
{ High. 

Very High. 
J Transitions 



f Long. 
Quantity. < Medium. 
(Short 



Stress. 



39- 
sion. 



i Impassioned. 
I 

Radical. 

Median. 

Vanishing. 

Compound. 

Tremor. 



i 



Free. 
Suppressed. 



Movement. 



^SIow. 
Moderate. 
Brisk. 
Rapid. 



Cole's Institute Reader^ p. 113. 
Transition is change in the manner of expres- 



Fertich's Instructive Elocution^ P-Z^* 

40. The monotone is an unvaried tone throughout a 
sentence or discourse. 

Id., p. 35. 

41. Monotony is a frequent occurrence of the same 
tone or manner, without reference to the sense. 

Id., p. 33. 

42. Modulation implies those variations of the voice, 
heard in reading or speaking, which are prompted by 
the feelings and emotions that the subject inspires. 

Sander's Rhetorical Reader^ p. 35. 



*0 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

43. The voice is modulated in three different ways ; 
that is, from high to low tones, and the reverse. 

Secondly, it is varied in quantity^ or in loudness or 
volume of sound. 

Thirdly ^ it is varied in quality ^ or in the >^/«^of sound 
expressed. 

Z3?.,;?. 35. 

44. Although the voice is capable of as many varia- 
tions in speaking, as are marked on the musical scale 
(8), yet for all the purposes of ordinary reading, it will 
be sufficiently exact if we make but three degrees of var- 
iation, viz., the Low^ the Middle, and the High. 

Id., /. 36, 

45. Quantity is two-fold; consisting in Fullness 
or Volume of sound, as soft or loud ; and in Time, as 
slow or quick. The former has reference to Stress, the 
latter to Movement. 

Id., p. 37, 

46. Quantity has reference to loudness or volume of 
sound, and pitch to the elevation or depression of a tone. 

Id.,p,38, 

47. Quality has reference to the kind of sound ut- 
tered. 

Id, p. 3p. 

48. Force is the degree of energy with which sounds 
are uttered. 

Fertich's Instructive Elocution, p. 30. 

49. Emphasis differs from force, in the fact that the 
former is relative, while the latter is absolute. 

Id., p,30. 

50. The manner in which Force is applied, in read- 
ing and speaking, is termed Stress. 

Cole's Institute Reader, p. 12^, 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 41 

51. Cadence is the dropping of the voice at the 
close of the sentence, which indicates that the sense is 
complete. 

Hamiirs Science of Elocution, p. 152. 

52. Climax is an utterance gradually increasing in 
intensity, and changing in pitch and movement. 

Id., p. i6j. 

53. Grouping is that nice modulation and adaptation 
of the voice to the sentiment expressed which renders 
the utterance not only more impressive, but more pleas- 
ing to the ear. 

Id., p. lyo. 

54. Personation is the representation of the tones 
and manner of other persons. 

Fertich's Instructive Elocution, p. 34. 

55. In all discourse, printed or written, certain char- 
acters are used to show something about its meaning 
which cannot so conveniently be expressed by means of 
words. These characters are called Rhetorical Points. 

Day's Art of English Composition, p, jo8, 

56. The first class of Rhetorical Points includes, 

1. The Period {.); 

2. The Colon (.•); 

3. The Semicolon {;); 

4. The Comma (,). 

The second class of Rhetorical Points includes, — 

1. The Exclamation Point (/); 

2. The Interrogation Point {f); 

3. The Dash (—); 

4. Quotation Marks ('' " and ' '); 

5. Marks of Parenthesis ( ); 

6. Brackets [ ]. 

Id.^pp. joS and ^20, 



42 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

57. Etymological Points are used to indicate some- 
thing in regard to the formation, use, or omission of 
words or parts of words. 

They are, 

1. The Apostrophe ('), used to show the omission 
of a letter or letters; as, John's. 

2. The Caret (^), to show some omission in a man- 
uscript; as, 

come 
"The king is to marshal us." 

A 

3. The Diaeresis, to mark the separation of contig- 
uous vowels ; as, preengage. 

4. Marks of Quantity y to show that the vowel is 
long or short, as major. 

5. Marks of Accent, to mark either the accentua- 
tion of a syllable, or the intonation of the voice ; the 
grave (^), the acute ('), and the circumflex (a) ; as, bitu'- 
men, insist\ g61d. 

6. The Hyphen, used, i. To separate syllables ; as 
al-ge-bra ; 2. To unite the parts of a compound word. 

7. The Period, to show the abbreviation of a word; 
as, lat. for latitude. 

Points for reference are used to refer the reader to 
some other place in the page or the book. They are 
the following, which are generally used in the order 
given, and may be doubled if necessary: — 

The Asterisk (*); 

The Obelisk or Dagger (f); 

The Double Obelisk (J); 

The Section (§); 

Parallels (||); and 

The Paragraph (Tf). 

Id., pp. 326-327. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. it 

58. Capital letters are used: 

1. To begin the first word of a sentence. 

2. To begin all proper names. 

3. To begin all titles of honor. 

4. To begin the first word of every line of poetry. 

5. To begin the names of objects personified. 

6. In writing the pronoun I, and interjection O. 

7. To begin appellations of the Deity. 

8. To begin the names of the days of the week, 
and of the months. 

9. To begin direct quotations. 

10. To begin words derived from proper names. 

11. To begin the chief words in the titles of books, 
headings of divisions of books, chapters, discourses, etc. 

12. To begin words of special importance. 

Holbrookes Grammat^p. JO. 

59. "Be sure you understand what you read, and en- 
deavor to express the sentiments of the author as you 
would express the same if they were/^?^^ own, and you 
were talking'' 

Harpers United States Sixth Reader^ p. 24. 



QUESTIONS ON AKITHMETIC. 



1. Define Arithmetic as a Science and as an Art. 

2. Upon what is Arithmetic founded, and how are 
its operations carried on? 

3. What is Arithmetical language? How many 
kinds? 

4. In how many ways may numbers be written ? 

5. In the Arabic System of Notation numbers are ex- 
pressed according to what principle? 

6. Why is the Arabic System of Notation also 
called the Decimal System? 

7. What is the Scale of a system of Notation? What 
is the radix of the scale ? 

8. Upon what is the Arabic System of Notation 
based? 

9. How are numbers represented in the Roman No- 
tation? 

10. What is the effect of placing a bar over a letter? 

11. What is the fundamental synthetic process of 
Arithmetic? 

12. Give the principles of Addition. 

13. How many and what are the cases in Addition? 

14. Wfiy do we write the numbers as suggested by 
the Arithmetics, and why do we begin at the right hand 
to add? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 45 

15. What is the fundamental analytical process of 
Arithmetic? 

16. Give the principles of subtraction. 

17. Name and define the cases in subtraction. 

18. In how many ways may we obtain the elemen- 
tary differences in subtraction? 

19. Name the principles of Multiplication. 

20. Why are the multiplicand and multiplier taken 
together called factors? 

21. What is Division? 

22. What are the terms of Division? 

23. Upon what does the Quotient depend? 

24. Show how the value of the Quotient depends on 
the relation of dividend and divisor. 

25. What principles of Division are deduced from 
these relations? 

26. What two theories regarding the Quotient, as to 
the quality ofabstractness or concreteness? 

27. How are numbers classified? 

28. Define these classes of numbers. 

29. What are the factors of a number? 

30. What is a prime factor? 

31. What is factoring? 

3^. What is a divisor or measure of a number? 

33. What is a multiple of a number? 

34. What is a common divisor and a common mul- 
tiple? 

35. Define Greatest Common Divisor and Least 
Common Multiple. 

36. What is a fraction? 

37. How does the unit of a fraction differ from a 
fractional unit? 

38. What is a Common fraction? 

39. How are fractions divided? 



48 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

40. Define Proper and Improper, and Simple, Com- 
pound, and Complex Fractions. 

41. Name and define the terms of a fraction. 

42. Is a Fraction a Number? 

43. Is a Fraction a Denominate Number? 

44. What is a mixed number? 

45. What is the reciprocal of a number? 

46. Give an outline of the cases of fractions. 

47. What two methods are there of developing frac- 
tions? 

48. What is a continued fraction? 

49. What is a Decimal fraction? 

50. In what two ways may a decimal fraction be ex- 
pressed? 

51. What is the first thing to be considered in the 
treatment of decimals? 

52. Give rules for reading and writing decimals. 

53. What will the denominator of a decimal always 
be? 

54. Upon what does the value of a decimal figure de- 
pend? 

55. How do decimals increase and decrease? 

56. What is a pure decimal? 

57. What is a mixed decimal? 

58. What is a complex decimal? 

59. From what are the names of decimal orders de- 
rived? 

60. What is a circulating decimal? 

61. What is a denominate number? 

62. What is a simple denominate number? 

63. What is a compound denominate number? 

64. What is a standard unit? 

65. Name the quantities of magnitude which give 
rise to denominate numbers. 



THE NOEMAL QUESTION BOOK. 47 

66. What is the standard unit of value? 

6^. What is the standard unit of weight? 

68. What is the standard unit of length? 

69. What is the standard unit of surface? 

70. What is the standard unit of volume? 

71. What is the standard unit of capacity? 

72. What is the standard unit of angles? 

73. What is the standard unit of time? 

74. Define the metric system of measurement. 

75. What is Percentage? 

'^6. What is the difference between rate and rate per 
cent? 

jj. Name and define the elements involved in per- 
centage. 

*jZ. How is per cent, expressed? 

79. Give general rules for computations in percent- 
age. 

80. Give the applications of percentage. 

81. Define profit and loss. 

82. Define commission ; brokerage. 

83. Define agent, factor, broker, consignee, and con- 
signor. 

84. Define duties. 

85. What is the difference between specific duties 
and ad valorem duties ? 

86. What is a tariff? 

87. What is insurance? 

ZZ. Name and define the kinds of insurance. 

89. Define underwriter, policy and premium. 

90. Define a tax. 

91. What is a bond? What is a coupon? Name 
the three principal classes of United States Bonds. 

92. Define interest. 



48 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

93. What is the difference between simple and 
compound interest? 

94. What is a note? 

95. Name and define the kinds of notes. 

96. What is a draft? 

97. Define discount and present worth. 

98. What is the difference between true discount 
and bank discount? 

99. What is ratio? 

100. What are the terms of the ratio? 

10 1. In how many and in what ways may the ratio 
of two numbers be expressed? 

102. What is the difference between a simple ratio 
and a compound ratio? 

103. What is a proportion? 

104. How is a proportion formed? 

105. What is a continued proportion? 

106. How many antecedents in a proportion? How 
many consequents? 

107. How are ratio and proportion distinguished? 

108. What is a simple proportion? 

109. What is a direct proportion? 

1 10. What is an inverse proportion? 

111. What is a compound proportion? 

112. Define partnership. 

113. What is the difference between simple and com- 
pound partnership? 

114. What is analysis? 

115. Define exchange. 

116. What is a bill of exchange? 

117. How many parties to a transaction in exchange? 

118. Name and define these parties. 

119. What is an indorsement? 

120. What is an acceptance? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 49 

121. How is this obligation acknowledged? 

122. What is a bankrupt? 

123. What is the difference between a bankrupt and 
an insolvent? 

124. Define bankruptcy. 

125. Denne aliquot parts. 

126. Explain how distance is measured by tim.e. 

127. How do you find the difference in time corres- 
ponding to any difference in longitude? 

128. How do you find the difference in longitude 
corresponding to any difference in time? 

129. How do you find the time at one place when 
the time at another place and their difference of time are 
known? 

130. How do navigators determine their longitude 
at sea? 

131. What is alligation? 

132. What is the difference between alligation medial 
and alligation alternate? 

I33« What is an annuity? 

134. Name and define the kinds of annuities. 

135. What is involution? 

136. What is the power of a number? 

137. What is a perfect power? An imperfect power? 

138. What is the exponent of a power? 

139. Give the principle involved in finding any pow- 
er of a number. 

140. Define evolution. 

141. What is the root of a number? 

142. How are the roots of numbers indicated? 

143. Define square root. Cube root. 

144. What is the difference between arithmetical 
progression and geometrical progression? 



60 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

145. What five things are to be considered in arith- 
metical progression? 

146. What things are to be considered in geometri- 
cal progression? 

147. What is a duodecimal? 

148. For what are duodecimals used? 

149. What is mensuration? 

150. What is magnitude? 

151. What is the measuring unit of surfaces? 

152. How do you find the area of a parallelogram^ 
and a square? 

153. How do you find the area of a rhombus? 

154. How do you find the area of a trapezium? 

155. How do you find the area of a triangle? 

156. How do you find the area of a triangle when 
the three sides are given? 

157. How do you find the circumference of a circle^ 
when the diameter is given? 

158. How do you find the diameter of a circle, when 
the circumference is given? 

159. How do you find the area of a circle? 

160. How do you find a mean proportional between 
two numbers? 

161. How do you find the solidity of bodies whose 
sides are perpendicular to each other? 

162. How do you find the solidity of a prism? 

163. How do you find the lateral surface of a right 
prism? 

164. How do you find the solidity of a pyramid or 
cone? 

165. How do you find the lateral or convex surface 
of a regular pyramid, or cone? 

166. How do you find the solidity of a cylinder? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 51 

. 167. How do you find the convex surface of a cylin- 
der? 

168. How do you find the surface of a sphere or 
globe? 

769. How do you find the solidity of a sphere or 
globe ? 

/70. How do you find the side of a square equal in 
area to any given surface? 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITH- 
METIC. 



/. Arithmetic, as a Science, logically investigates and 
philosophically classifies and arranges the principles and 
rules of the subject; as an A^t, it applies the principles 
and rules for computation to the practical affairs of life. 

French's Common School, p. J. 

2, Arithmetic is founded on Notation, and its oper- 
ations are carried on by means of Addition, Subtrac- 
tion, Multiplication and Division. 

Ray's Higher, /. //, mt 2j. 

3. Arithmetical language is the method of expressing 
numbers. It is of two kinds, Oral dind Written. The 
former is called Numeration and the latter is called No- 
tation, 

Brook's Normal, Part 2, p. lOy arts, 13-14* 

4- 

/. By words, or common language. 

2. ^y figures, called the Arabic Method, 

3. By letters^ called the Roman Method, 

Brookes Normal Union, Part2,p. 11, art, 2j. 
5. We employ characters to represent the first nine 
numbers, and then use these characters to number the 
groups, the group numbered being indicated by the po- 
sition of the character. 

Id,,p, II, art. 2^, 
n 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 53 

6. From the Latin, decern^ ten. Ten units of a lower 
order make one unit of the next higher order. 

Id.^p. \6, art. 36. 

7. The scale of a system of Notation is the law of 
relation between its successive orders of units. The 
number which expresses this law is called the radix of 
the scale. 

Id,^ p. 77, art. 38, 

8. Upon the simple but ingenious device of place. 

Id., p. 77, art. 4.0, 

9. By the following seven letters: I. one; Y.five; 
X. ten; L. fifty; C. one hundred; M. one thousand. Ev- 
crytime a letter is repeated its value is repeated. Where 
a letter of less value is placed before one of a greater val- 
ue, the less is taken from the greater. If placed after it, 
the less is added to the greater. 

Ray's Highef, p. 18, art. j8, 

10. A bar ( — ) placed over a letter increases its val- 
ue a thousand times. Thus M denotes one million. 

Id., p. ig. 

11. Addition. For by it we pass from unity to plu- 
rality ; from the one to the many. This process, which 
gives rise to numbers, becomes the primary operation of 
Arithmetic. 

Brook's Philosophy of Arith., p. 2oy, 
12, 

I. Only similar numbers can be added. 
II. The sum is a number similar to the numbers 
added. 

III. The sum is the same in whatever order the 
numbers are added. 

Id., p. 208. 
73. Two. The first consists in finding the sums of 
numbers independently of the notation used to express 



64 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

them. The second consists in finding the sum of num- 
bers as expressed in written characters. The former 
deals with small numbers which can be united mentally 
and may be called mental addition; the latter is used 
with large numbers, and may be called written addition. 

Id,, p. 208, 

74. Merely for convenience. 

Id, ^ p. 211, 

75. Subtraction. 

Id.,p, 213. 

/6. 

I. Similar numbers only can be subtracted. 
II. The difference is a number similar to the min- 
uend and subtrahend. 

III. If the minuend and subtrahend be equally in- 
creased or diminished, the remainder will be the same. 
IV. The minuend equals the sum of the subtra- 
hend and remainder ; the subtrahend equals the differ- 
ence between the minuend and remainder. 

Id., pp, 21^ and 215, 
77. There are two. 7st. The finding of the differ- 
ence between numbers independently of the notation 
employed to express them. 2d. The finding of the 
difference between large numbers expressed in the Ara- 
bic System. 

Id,, pp, 2i6-2\y, 
18. Two. First, we may find the difference between 
two numbers by counting off from the large number as 
many units as are contained in the smaller number. 
The other method consists in deriving the elementary 
differences by inference ffom the elementaty sums. 

Id.,p, 260. 

79. 

I. The multiplier is always an abstract number. 



THE FORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 55 

II. The product is always similar to the multipli- 
cand. 

III. The product of two numbers is the same, 
which ever is made the multiplier. 

IV. If the multiplicand be multiplied by all the 
parts of the multiplier, the sum of all the partial pro- 
ducts will be the true product. 

V. The multiplicand equals the quotient of the 
product divided by the multiplier; the multiplier equals 
the quotient of the product divided by the multiplicand. 

Id., pp. 2 2 2-2 2 J, 

20. Because they make the product. 

Ray's Higher, p. 2/. 
2/. Division is the process of finding the Quotient of 
two numbers. 

Brook's Philosophy of Arith. , p. 228. 

22. The terms of Division are the Dividend, Divisor, 
and Quotient. 

Brook's Written Arith., p. 44, art. 4.6, 

23. The Quotient depends on both Dividend and 
Divisor. 

Quackenbos' s Practical Arith. ^ p. 6j. 

24. If one of these terms is fixed, a change in the 
other changes the Quotient. But if both are changed, 
these changes may neutralize each other, and the Quo- 
tient remain the same. 

Id., p. 6j, art. loj. 

25. 

1. Multiplying the Dividend or dividing the Di- 
visor by any number multiplies the Quotient by that 
number, 

2. Dividing the Dividend or multiplying the Di- 
visor by any number divides the Quotient by that num- 
ber. 



56 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

3. Multiplying or dividing both Dividend and Di- 
visor by the same number does not change the Quo- 
tient. 

Brook's Philosophy of Arithmetic^ p. 2^0. 
26. 

Ans. I. Several recent writers take the position 
that a concrete number may be divided by an abstract 
number, because in practice we thus divide a concrete 
number into equal parts. This is a subordination of 
science to practice, which is neither philosophical nor 
necessary. The practical case which they thus try to 
include in the theory of the subject, admits of a scien- 
tific and simple explanation, without any modification of 
the fundamental idea of division ; and when thus ex- 
plained it becomes apparent that the two terms are sim- 
ilar numbers. 

The dividend and divisor are always similar num- 
bers. The quotient is always an abstract number. 

Brook's Philosophy of Arithmetic, pp. 228-22jg, 

Ans. 11. The quotient may be either abstract or 
concrete, — 

(a.) It will be an abstract number, when the divi- 
dend and divisor are both abstract, or both concrete 
numbers. (Ex. i and 2.) ■ 

(b.) The quotient will be a concrete number, when 
the dividend is a concrete, and the divisor an abstract 
number. (Ex. 3.) 

(c.) Either the divisor or the quotient, must al- 
ways be an abstract number. (Ex. I, 2 and 3.) 

(d.) An abstract number can not be divided by a 
concrete number. (Ex. 4.) 

(!•) (2.) 

IS cents I 3 cents. 15 ( 3 

S 1 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 67 

(3) (4) 

15 cents I 3. ^5 I 3 cents. 

5 cents Impossible 

Writing in the places of numbers, words indicating 
the kind of numbers used, we have : 

(I.) (2.) 

Concrete | Concrete. Abstract | Abstract. 

Abstract Abstract 

(3-) (4.) 

Concrete | Abstract. Abstract | Concrete. 

Concrete Impossible 

French! s Arithmetic, pp. S4--55' 

27. Numbers may be classified as follows : 
I. As Even and Odd, 

II. As Prime and Composite. 

III. As Integral dind Fractional, 

IV. As Abstract and Concrete. 
V. As Simple diVid Compound, 

VI. As Like and Unlike. 

Robiiison's Progressive Practical Arith.y pp, 84.-85, 

28. An Even number is one that can be divided by 
2 without a remainder. An Odd number is one that 
can not be divided by 2 without a remainder. 

Brook's Written Arith., p. yj. 
A Prime number is one that has no factors, and 
therefore has no exact divisor. 

A Composite number is one that may be divided, 
and always is the product of two or more factors. 

Raub's Complete Ajdthmetic^ p. 60. 
An Integral number, or Integer, expresses whole 
thiiigs. Thus, 281 ; yZ boys. 

A Fractional number, or Fraction, expresses equal 



58 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

parts of a thing. Thus, half a dollar; three-fourths of 

an hour 

RobinsofCs Progressive Practical Arith., p 8^. 
An Abstract number is one that is not used in con- 
nection with any specified thing. 

A Concrete number is one that is used in connec- 
tion with some specified thing. 

Milne s Practical Arith., p. 757. 
A Simple number is an abstract number, or a con- 
crete number having but one denomination; diS^threCf 
three feet. 

A Compound number consists of two or more con- 
crete numbers having different denominations ; as, three 
feet, ^2.^ inches. 

Quackenbos' s Higher Arithmetic^ p, 8, 
Like or Similar numbers are those which have the 
same unit. Thus, three yards and five yards are similar 
numbers. 

Unlike or Dissimilar numbers are those which do 
not have the same unit. 

Thus, three yards and three books are dissimilar 
numbers. 

Hagai^s Common School Arith.^ p. y, 

29. The Factors of a number are the integers which 
being multiplied together will produce that number. 

Id.^p. 52. 

30. A Prime Factor of a number is its prime divisor. 

White's Complete Arithmetic, p. j^. 

31. Factoring is the process of separating a number 
into its factors. 

Milne's Practical Arithmetic, p. j8, 

32. A Divisor or Measure of a number, is a number 
that will divide it without a remainder. 

Raf s Higher Afilhmc tic, p. t^6. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 59 

33. A Multiple of a number is the product obtained 
by taking it a certain number of times; 15 is a multiple 
of 5, being equal to 5 taken 3 times. 

Id., p. 5^' 
A Multiple of a number is any number which it 
will exactly divide. 

White's Complete Arithmetic, p. 41. 

34. A Common Divisor of two or more numbers, is 
a number which will divide them without a remainder. 
Thus, 2 is a common divisor of 4, 6, 8, 12, 16. 

A Common Multiple of two or more numbers, is a 
number which can be divided by each of them without a 
remainder Thus, 12 is a common multiple of 2, 3, 4. 
Thomson's Ptactical Arithmetic^ pp. gs~97y ^^^- 9^~99' 

35. The Greatest Common Divisor of two or more 
numbers, is the greatest number which will divide them 
without a remainder. Thus, 6 is the greatest common 
divisor of 12, 18, and 24. 

The Least Common Multiple of two or more num- 
bers, is the least number which can be divided by each 
of them without a remainder. Thus, 12 is the least com- 
mon multiple of 4 and 6, for it is the least number which 
can be exactly divided by them. 

Id.^ pp. 95-98, arts, pj-ioi. 

36. A Fraction is a number which expresses one or 
more of the equal parts into which a unit is divided. 

Hagar's Common School Arithmetic, p. ^j, art. 141. 

37. The Unit of the Fraction is the unit, or whole 
thing, which is considered as divided into parts. Thus, 
the unit of the fraction of a dollar is one dollar. 

A Fractional Unit is one of the equal parts of the 
unit of the fraction. Thus, one-half is the fractional unit 
of halves. 

Id>,P- 73^ ^^i^' 142-143- 



60 THE NOEMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

38. A Common Fraction is one in which the numer- 
ator and the denominator are both expressed by figures. 

RauUs Complete Arithmetic y p. /<?, art. yo. 

39. Fractions are divided with regard to their value, 
as compared with the unit, into Proper and Improper 
Fractions; with regard to their form, into Simple, Com- 
pound and Complex. 

Brook's Philosophy of Anthmetic^ p. 421. 

40. A Proper Fraction is one whose numerator is 
less than its denominator; as, ^. 

An Improper Fraction is one whose numerator is 
equal to or greater than its denominator ; as, 4-4, 5-4. 

A Simple Fraction is one not united with another, 
and both of whose terms are integers ; as, ^. 

A Compound Fraction is a fraction of a fraction ; as, 

y^ of 5-6. 

A Complex Fraction is one having a fraction in one 
or both of its terms ; as, ^ of 6, 6-j 

RauUs Complete Arith., p. 7^, arts. 71, 7^, 7j, 74-73. 

41. The terms of a fraction are the Numerator and 
Denominator. The number below the line is called the 
Denominator. It shows into how many equal parts the 
whole is divided, and gives name to the parts. The 
number above the line is called the Numerator. It 
shows how many of the equal parts denoted by the De- 
nominator are taken. 

Quackenbos's Higher Arith., p. p2. 

42. It has been stated by some writers, and seems 
frequently to be the idea of pupils, that a fraction is not 
a number. This, however, is a mistake, as will appear 
from a slight consideration of the matter. Newton's de- 
finition of number provides for the fractional number 
when the object measured is a definite part of the meas- 



THE NOKMAL QUESTION BOOK. 61 

ure ; it consequently appears that the fraction is a num- 
ber, if we accept his definition as correct. The defini- 
tion, "A Fraction is a number of equal parts of unity," 
also makes it clear that a fraction is a number. Again, 
if it is not a number, what kind of a quantity is it; and 
why should it be treated in arithmetic, the science of 
numbers? 

Five inches is certainly a number ; hence its equiva- 
lent, ^z/^'-/ze/^^///^ of a foot, is also a number. Numbers 
are of two classes, integers and /factions; and fractions 
are numbers, as much so as integers. The fractional 
number, it will be noticed, involves two ideas — first, the 
integral unit; and second, the fractional unit. In an in- 
teger we have the idea of a number of units ; in the frac- 
tion we have, not only an idea of a number of units, but 
also the relation of the fractional unit to the integral 
unit 

Bfook's Philosophy of Arith.y p. ^4. 

43. A fraction is not a denominate number. 

Id., p. 425. 

44. A Mixed Number is an integer and a fraction 
united; as, 5>^. 

Whites Complete Arithmetic^ p, ^5, art, y6. 



68 



THE NORMAL QUESPION BOOK. 



45. The Reciprocal of a number is i divided by that 
number: thus, the reciprocal of 6 is 1-6. 

RauUs Complete Arithmetic^ p. 7^, art. 77. 



46. 



Outline 

of the 

Cases of 

Fractions. 



1. Number to a Fraction. 

2. Fraction to a Number. 



I. 



T> J i.' ■ ^- To His/her Terms. 
Reduction. {^ -r ^ -r 

^ 4. i o Lower 1 erms. 



2. Addition, 



{;: 



3. Subtraction. 



5. Division. 



6. Relation. < 



5. Compound to Simple. 

6. Dissimilar to Similar. 
The denominators alike. 
The denominators unlike. 

f I. Denominators alike. 
'\ 2. Denominators unlike. 
r I. Fraction by a number. 
4. Multiplication.^ 2. Number by a fraction. 
( 3. Fraction by a fraction. 
" I. Fraction by a Number. 
2. Number by a Fraction. 
^ 3. Fraction by a Fraction. 

1. Number to a Number. 

2. Fraction to a Number. 

3. Number to a Fraction. 

4. Fraction to a Fraction. 
Brook's Philosophy of Arithmetic, p. /j.2y. 

47. There are two methods of developing the subject 
of common fractions, which may be distinguished as the 
Inductive and Deductive methods. By the Inductive 
method, we solve each case by analyses, and derive the 
rules, or methods of operation, from these analysis, by 
inference or induction. The method is called inductive, 
because it proceeds from the analysis of particular prob- 
lems to a general method which applies to all problems 
of a given class. By the deductive method we first -es- 
tablish a few general principles by demonstration, and 
then derive the rides, or methods of operation, from these 
principles. The method is called deductive because it 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. OS 

proceeds from the general principle to the particular 
problem. We will illustrate the difference of these two 
methods by a problem in compound fractions. Take 
the question, ''What is J^ of 4-5?" The analysis is as 
follows : y^, o^ ^'5 ^^ one of the three equal parts into 
which 1-5 may be divided; if each 5th is divided into 3 
equal parts, 5-5 or the unit will be divided into 5 times 
3, or 15 equal parts, and each part will be 1-15; hence 
^ of 1-5 is I- 1 5, and ^ of 4-5 is 4 times ^, ory^g^and J^ 
of 4-5 is 2 times 4-15, or 8-15. Examining the analysis 
we see that we have multiplied the two denominators 
together and the two numerators together, from which 
we derive the rule for the reduction of compound frac- 
tions. By the deductive method we would reason as 
follows: By a principle previously demonstrated, J^ of 
4-5, which is the same as dividing 4-5 by 3, is 3^; and 
J^ of 4-5 by another principle, is 8-15. 

It will be noticed that the deductive method is much 
shorter than the inductive method, because while the 
former explains every point involved, the latter makes 
use of principles previously demonstrated. 

Id., pp. 428-^2^4.30. 

48. A Continued Fraction is a fraction whose num- 
erator is I, and denominator an integer plus a fraction 
whose numerator is also I and denominator a similar 
fraction, and so on. 

Thus, ^j,=i_ 

+i, or thus, J+A+^+|. 

Id.^ p. 4J4, Chapter IV, 

49. A Decimal Fraction is a fraction whose denomi- 
nator is not expressed ; but is understood to be such a 
power of ten as is indicated by the number of figures at 
the right of the separatrix. 



64 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Criticism. In consulting Ray's Higher Arithmetic 
I find this definition of a decimal fi-action: 

"A Decimal Fraction is one which derives its name 
from the Latin word decern meaning ten ; and is so- 
called, because its denominator is always I with cyphers 
annexed; being either lO or the product of several 
lo's." 

This definition is worthless because it includes a 
large class of common fractions. Read Prof. Davies, in 
his University Arithmetic, — *'A decimal fraction is one 
in which the unit is divided according to the scale of 
tens." 

Remafk. The separatrix is the most important 
character used in decimals, and no pains should be 
spared to impress this on the minds of pupils. 

Holbrookes Normal Methods, pp. 32g-jjo, 

50. A Decimal Fraction may be expressed in the 
form of a common fraction, or by means of the decimal 
scale. 

When expressed by the scale it is distinguished 
from the general meaning of the term decimal fraction by 
calling it a Decimal, A Decimal may thus be defined 
as a decimal ft action expressed by the decimal method 
of notation. Thus, 5-10, 45-100, are decimal fractions, 
but not decimals; while .5, ^^^^^dx^ho^ decimal fractions 
and decimals. 

Brook' s Philosophy of Arithmetic^ p. ^^.55, 

51. In the treatment of decimals, the first thing to be 
considered is the method of reading and writing them, 
or their Numeration and Notation. 

Id,, p. 4S7. 
52. 

I. To read a decimal, read it as though it were an 
integer, and add the name of the right hand order. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 65 

2. To write a decimal, write it as an integer, and 
so place the decimal point that the right hand figure 
shall stand in the order denoted by the name of the dec- 
imal. 

White's Complete Arithmetic, p. jS, aH. ii8. 

3. It is seen from the decimal scale, that the tens 
of any number of tenths, the hundreds of any number of 
hundredths, the thousands of any number of thous- 
andths, etc., each falls in the order of units when the 
decimal is expressed decimally. Thus, 42 tenths, writ- 
ten decimally, is 4.2, the 4 (tens) falling in units' order; 
1265 hundredths, written decimally, is 12.65, the 2 (hun- 
dreds) falling in units' order; and 425 thousandths, writ- 
ten decimally is .425 or 0.425, the o (thousands) falling 
in units' order. Hence, the following 

Rule. — To write a decimal, begin at the left and 
write the term corresponding to the name of the deci- 
mal, in the order of units, 

HenkUs Method of Writing Decimals, White's Complete 
Arithmetic, pp. jii a7id J12, art. ^y6. 

4. There are two methods of reading decimals, 
which may be expressed as follows: 

(a.) Begin at the decimal point and read in succes- 
sion the value of each term belonging to the decimal, or 

(b.) Read the decimal as a whole number, and 
annex the name of the right hand decimal place. 

Methods of writing decimals: 

(a.) Fix the decimal point and write each term in 
its proper decimal place. 

(b.) Write the numerator as an integer, and then 
place the decimal point so that the right-hand term shall 
express the denomination of the decimal. 

(c.) Write the numerator as an integer, and then 
begin at the right and numerate backward, filling vacant 



66 THE NOBMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

places with ciphers, until we reach the required denom- 
ination, and to the expression thus obtained, prefix the 
decimal point. Thus, to write 475 millionths, we first 
write 475 ; then beginning at the 5, we numerate toward 
the left, saying tenths, hundredths, thousandths, ten- 
thousandths (writing a cipher), hundred-thousandths 
(writing a cipher), millionths (writing a cipher], and then 
place the decimal point. 

Brooks sPhilosophy of Arithmetic, pp. 4.^8 and ^5p, Section 
II, Chapter I. 

53. The denominator of a decimal will always be the 
unit I, with as many ciphers annexed as are equal to the 
number of figures in the decimal or numerator. 

Robinson's Progressive Practical Arith., p. 118. 

54. The value of any decimal figure depends upon its 
place from the decimal point. Thus .3 is ten times .03. 

Id., p. Tig. 

55. Decimals increase from right to left, and de- 
crease from left to right, in a tenfold ratio ; and there- 
fore may be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided 
the same as whole numbers. 

Id., p. iig. 

56. A Pure Decimal consists of a decimal only.. 
Thus, .35, which is read 35 hundredths, is a pure deci- 
mal. 

Hagaf^s Common School Arith., p. loj. 

57. A Mixed Decimal consists of an integer and a 
decimal. Thus, 15.7, which is read 15 ones and 7 
tenths or 15 and 7 tenths, is a mixed decimal. 

Id., p. lOJ. 

58. A Complex Decimal consists of a decimal with 
a common fraction annexed. Thus, .005%, which is 
read 5^ thousandths, is a complex decimal. 

Id., p. 10 J, art. 22 J. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 67 

59. The Names of the decimal orders are derived 
from the names of the orders of integers. 

Id., p. joj, art. 228. 

60. A decimal in which one or more figures are con- 
stantly repeated, is called a Cifculating Decimal. 

Quackenbos's Practical Arith.^ p. 114, art. ig/j.. 

61. A Denominate Number is a concrete number in 
vrhich the unit of measure is established by law or cus- 
tom. 

Thus, 5 yards, 3 feet, 7 pounds, 3 ounces, are denom- 
inate numbers. 

Milne's Practical Arith.., p. 757, art. 2J4.. 

62. A Simple Denominate Number is a denominate 
number composed of units of the same denominations. 

Thus, 5 feet, 9 pounds, 3 miles, are simple denomi- 
nate numbers. Id., p. 757, art. 2j^. 

63. A Compound Denominate Number is a denomi- 
nate number composed of units of two or more denomi- 
nations which are related to each other. Thus, 6 feet 
and 4 inches, 8 hours and 32 minutes, are compound de- 
nominate numbers. 

Id., p, 757, art. 2j6. 

64. A Standard Unit is a unit of measure from which 
the other units of the same kind may be derived. 

Id., p. 757, art. 237. 
65. 

I. Value; 2. Weight; 3. Length; 4. Surface ; 5. 
Volume ; 6. Capacity ; 7. Angles ; 8. Time. 

Philosophy of Arithnetic, Brooks, p. ^g2. 
66. Money is the measure of the value of things. It 
is of two kinds, coins and paper money. In the U. S. 
the standard unit is the dollar. Tn English money the 
the standard unit is the pound. 

Brook's Written Arith., pp. ij'z-ijS. 



68 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

()']. The standard unit of weight is the Troy Pound. 
Brook's Philosophy of Afith., p. ^p^. 

68. The standard unit of length is the Yard. It is 
determined by the length of a pendulum which vibrates 
seconds in a vacuum at the level of the sea, in the lati- 
tude of London. 

Id., p. 494. 

69. The standard unit of surface is the Square yard 
for ordinary measurement, and the Acre for land. 

Id., p. 494. 

70. The standard unit of volume is the Cubic yard 
for ordinary measurement, and the Cord for wood. 

Id., p. 494. 

71. The standard unit of capacity is the Gallon for 
fluids, and the Bushel for dry substances. 

Id., p. 494. 

72. The standard unit of angular measure is the Right 
angle, or, in practice, one degree of a circle. 

Id., p. 494, 

73. The standard unit of time is the Day. This is de - 
termined by the revolution of the earth upon its axis. 

Id., p. 494, 

74. The Metric System is a decimal system of 
weights and measures, having the meter for the base or 
unit. 

Raub's Complete Arith., p. j/5. 

75. Percentage is the name applied to computations 
in which 100 is the unit or measure. 

Id., p. 184, art. 1S3. 

76. The Rate is the number of hundredths. The 
rate per cent, is the fraction which denotes how many 
hundredths are taken. Thus, in 3%, or 3-100, 3 is the 
rate, and 3-100 itself the rate percent. 

Id., p. 185. 



THE XOilMAL QUESTION BOOK. 69 

J"]. Problems in Percentage involve the following 
elements : 

1. The Base is the number of which the per cent, 
is taken. 

2. The Rate is the number of hundredths taken. 

3. The Percentage is the number which is a cer- 
tain number of hundredths of the base. 

4. The Amount is the sum of the base and per- 
centage. 

5. The Difference is the base less the percentage. 

Millies Practical Arith. , /. 2og. 
78. Any per cent., being so many hundredths, may 
be operated with either as a common fraction or a deci- 
mal ; but the decimal form is preferred as the easier. 
1% is either i-ioo or .01. Any part of 1% may be ex- 
pressed decimally by taking the like part of .01. Thus, 
y^^o — Y^ of.oi=.oo25. Any part of 1% that can not 
be exactly expressed as a decimal may be written as a 
common fraction en the right of the order of hundredths. 
Thus, \ %=.oo^. The following examples will show 
how to express different rates per cent, decimally : — 
2%=.02. ioo%==i.oo. >^%=.oo5. 7^%^.o73. 
Quackenbos' s Highet Arith., p. ^j^. 

79- 

I. Base and rate given, to find the percentage. 
Multiply the base by the rate. 
II. Base and percentage given, to find the rate. 
Divide the percentage by the base. 

III. Rate and percentage given, to find the base. 
Divide the percentage by the rate. 

IV. Base and rate given, to find either amount or 
difference. 

Multiply the base by i plus the rate, for the amount; 
and by i minus the rate, for the difference. 



70 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

V. Amount or difiference and rate given, to find the 
base. 

Divide the amount by i plus the rate; and the dif- 
ference by I minus the rate. 

French's Common School Arith., pp. 2j^-2j6, 

80. The rules of Percentage are applied in many of 
the most common mercantile transactions, — in comput- 
ing Interest, Discount, Commission, Taxes, Insurance, 
Duties, and especially Profit and Loss. 

Quackenbos' s Higher Arith.^ p. 2/j.2y art. ^2^ . 

81. Profit and Loss are the terms used to indicate 
gain or loss in business transactions. 

RauUs Complete Arith. ^ p. zpj". 

82. Commission is an allowance made to an agent 
for selling goods for another. 

The commission allowed to a broker is called brok- 
erage. 

Id.ypp, 201-202, arts. i6j-i6g. 

83. An Agent is one who transacts business for 
another. A Factor is an agent who buys and sells or 
transacts mercantile business for another. A Broker is 
one who buys and sells stocks, real estate, bonds and 
the like for another person. A Consignee is the person 
to whom goods are sent for sale ; the sender is called 
the Consignor. 

Id., pp. 201-202, arts. 164, 165, 167, 168. 

84. Duties, or Customs, are taxes levied on imported 
goods, for the support of government and the protection 
of home industry. 

Robinson's Progressive Practical A^ith., p. 237, art. 290. 

85. Specific Duties are customs assessed on the 
quantity of goods imported, without reference to their 
value, and ad valorem duties are customs assessed on the 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 71 

cost of goods in the country from which they are im- 
ported. 

White's Complete AritJu, p. i68, arts. 268-26^. 
Z^. A list of the rates of duties to be collected, is 
called a Tariff. 

Id., p. 168, art, 267. 
Sy. Insurance is a guaranteed indemnity for loss. 

Id., p. /5p, art. 2^g. 
^^. There are five different kinds of Insurance : 
Fire Insurance secures against loss or damage by 
fire; Marine Insurance, against the dangers of naviga- 
tion; Accident Insurance, against casualties to travellers 
and others ; Health Insurance secures a weekly allow- 
ance during sickness ; Life Insurance secures a certain 
sum, on the death of the insured, to some party named 
in the contract. 

Quackenbos' s Practical Arith., pp. 2^6-2^ j, 

89. The Underwriter is the insurer, — the person or 
company that takes the risk. The Policy is the written 
contract. The Premium is the sum paid the underwrit- 
er for taking the risk. 

Id., p. 257, art. 411. 

90. A Tax is a sum assessed on the person, proper- 
ty, or income of an individual, for any public purpose, 
such as the support of government, the maintenance of 
schools, etc. 

Quackenbos' s Highet Arith., p. 312, art. 526. 

91. The interest bearing notes issued by nations, 
states, cities, railroad companies, and other corporations, 
as a means of borrowing money, are called Bonds. The 
Coupons attached to bonds are due-bills for the interest, 
which as the interest becomes due, are cut off and pre- 
sented for payment. 



72 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

The several classes of bonds issued by the United 

States Government, are called United States Securities, 

or Government Securities, the principal of which are 

known as Sixes of 1 88 1, Five-Twenties, and Ten-Forties. 

White's Complete Arith.,p. 204, arts. 330-331. 

92. Interest is the premium paid for the use of 
money Id., p. 171, aft. 278. 

93. Simple Interest is interest on the priiicipal only. 
Compound Interest is interest on the principal and also 
on the interest which, at regular intervals of time, is 
added to the principal. 

Id., pp. 172-208, arts. 283-336. 

94. A Note, or a Promissory Note, is a written prom- 
ise to pay a certain sum of money for value received. 

Hagars Common School Arlth., p. 202, art. 485. 

95. A Time Note is one made payable at a specified 
time. A Negotiable Note is one so made that it can be 
sold or transferred. 

Hagar's Common School Atith., p. 202. 
A Bank-Note is a note payable at a bank. Bank 
bills are also called bank notes. 

French's Common School Arith., p. 271. 
A Joint Note is a note signed b}^ two or more per- 
sons who are jointly liable for its payment. A Joint and 
Several Note is a note signed by two or more persons 
who are both jointly and singly liable for its payment. 
White's Complete Arith., p. 199. 

96. A Draft is an order made by one person upon 
another to pay a specified sum to a third person named. 
It is also called a Bill of Exchange. 

Whites Complete Arith., p. 201, arl. 326. 

97. Discount is a sum deducted for the payment, be- 
fore it becomes due, of a note or other debt not drawing 
interest. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 73 

Present Worth, or Proceeds, is the face of an obli- 
gation minus the discount. 

Frenclis Common School Arith., pp. 265-266, atts. 470- 
472. 
98. True Discount is the difference between the pres- 
ent worth and the face of the debt. In other words, it 
is the interest on the present worth for the given time. 
Bank Discount is greater than true discount, — the form- 
er being computed on the face of the note or amount, 
the latter on the present worth or principal. 

Quackenbos's Practical Arith., pp. 234 237. 
99. Ratio is the relation that one quantity bears to 
another of ths same kind. It is represented by the quo- 
tient arising from dividing one by the other. The ratio 
of 8 to 2 is 4. 

Id., p. 274, art. 444. 
100. The two numbers compared are called the 
Terms of the ratio. 

White's Complete Arith.,p. 222, art. 353. 
loi. The ratio of two numbers is expressed by plac- 
ing a colon (:) between them ; as 5:12. 

A ratio is also expressed in the form of a fraction, 
the antecedent being made the numerator and the con- 
sequent the denominator. Thus, 5 :i2=j^. 

Id., p. 222, arts. 355-356. 

102. A Simple Ratio is the ratio of two numbers; as 
5:8, orf : 4. A Compound Ratio is the product of two 
or more simple ratios; as, (5:6)-f-(|:io}. 

Id., pp. 222-22J. 

103. Proportion is an expression of equal ratios. 

Ray's Higher Anth., p. 191, art. 246. 

104. Placing a double colon (: :) between them, forms 
the proportion 3:5::6:io, read 3 is to 5 as 6 is to 10, or 



74 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

the ratio of 3 to 5 is equal to the ratio of 6 to 10. 

Id.^p. 191, aft. 246. 

105. A proportion with more than two equal ratios 
is called a continued proportion, as3:5::6:io::9: 

15. 

Id.^ p. 191, art. 246. 

106. Since each ratio has an antecedent and conse- 
quent, every proportion has two antecedents and two 
consequents, the ist and 3d terms being the anteced- 
ents, and the 2d and 4th the consequents. 

Id., p. 191, art. 246. 

107. Ratio is the relation between two numbers 
shown by their quotient ; proportion is the relation be- 
tween two ratios shown by their equality. The former 
has two terms, the latter four. 

Id., p. igi, 

108. A Simple Proportion is an equality between two 
simple ratios. 

Milne's Practical Arith., p. jo8. 

109. A Direct Proportion is one in which each term 
increases or diminishes, as the one on which it depends 
increases or diminishes. 

Id., p. J 08, art. 4g2. 
no. An Inverse Proportion is one in which each 
term increases as the term upon which it depends di- 
minishes, or diminishes as it increases. 

Id., p. jog, art, 4.^3. 

111. A Compound Proportion is a proportion in 
which either ratio is compound. 

Id., p. jii, art. 4^6. 

112. A Partnership is the association of two or more 
individuals for the transaction of business; the persons 
so associated are called partners. 

Raub's Complete Arith., p, 264. 



THE NOKMAL QUESIION BOOK. 75 

113. A Simple Partnership is one in which each of 
the partners has his capital invested for the same time. 
A Compound Partnership is that in which the capita) of 
the partners is employed for different periods of time. 

Id., pp. 265-266. 

114. Analysis, in Arithmetic, is the process of arriv- 
ing at a required result, not by formal rules, but by 
tracing out relations and reasoning from what is known 
to what is unknown. We generally reason from the 
given number to i, and from i to the required number. 

Qiiackenbo^' s Practical Ariih., p 281. art. 46J. 

115. Exchange is a method of remitting money from 
one place to another, or of making payments by written 
orders. 

Robinson's Progressive Practical Arith. , p. 266, art, Jj8. 

116. A Bill of Exchange is a written request or or- 
der upon one person to pay a certain sum to another 
person, or to his order, at a specified time. 

Id., p. 266, art.jjp, 

117. There are always three parties, and usually four, 
to a transaction in exchange. 

Id., p. 266, art. J40, 

118. The Drawer or Maker is the person who signs 
the order or bill. The Drawee is the person to whom 
the order is addressed. The Payee is the person to 
whom the money is ordered to be paid. The Buyer or 
Remitter is the person who purchases the bill. 

Id., pp. 266-267, arts. 34.1-^4.2-34.3-34.4.. 

119. The Indorsement of a bill is the writing upon 
its back, by which the payee relinquishes his title, aiid 
transfers the payment to another. 

Id., p. 26y, art. 343. 

120. The Acceptance of a bill is the promise which 



76 THE XOKMAL QUESTION BOOK* 

the drawee makes when the bill is presented to him to 
pay it at maturity. 

Id., p. 26 J, art. J 4.6. 

121. This obligation is usually acknowledged by 
writing the word "Accepted," with his signature across 
the face of the bill. 

Id.^ p. 26 y, art. J4.6. 

122. A Bankrupt is a person who fails in business 
and has not property enough to pay all his debts. 

White s Complete Aritli.^ p. lyo, art. 2J2. 

123. The term bankrupt is strictly applicable only 
to a trader, while the term insolvent applies to any per- 
son who is unable to pay his debts. 

Id., p, I JO, art. 2^2, 

124. Bankruptcy is a failure in business, with inabil- 
ity to pay all debts. 

Id., p. Tjo^ aft. ^73. 

125. Aliquot parts is a useful method of finding a 
product, when one or both of the factors is a compound 
number. 

Ray's Higher Arith., p. 181, art. 2jj. 

126. Every circle is supposed to be divided into 360 
equal parts, called degrees. Since the sun appears to 
pass from east to west round the ear*^h, or through 360°, 
once in every 24 hours, it will pass through ^ of 360°,. 
or 15° of the distance, in i hour; and i^ of distance in 
-^ of I hour, or 4 minutes; and I '''of distance in -^ of 
4 minutes, cr 4 seconds. 

Robinson's Progressive Practical A rith..^ p. ig^. 

127. Divide the difference in longitude, expressed in- 
degrees, minutes and seconds, by 15, and the respective 
quotients will be hours, minutes, and seconds of time. 

White's Complete Aiith., p. ij/j., art. 201. 

128. Multiply the difference in time, expressed in 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 77 

hours, minutes, and seconds, by 15, and the respective 
products will be degrees, minutes, and seconds of longi- 
tude. 

Id.^ p, 73/, art. 201. 

129. When the second place is East of the first, add 
their difference of time ; when it is West of the first, 
subtract their difference of time. 

Id., p. ij^, art. 201, 

130. Taking with them a chronometer (an accurate 
watch) set to mark the time at a given place (as Green- 
wich or Washington), they ascertain by observation of 
the sun with the sextant the time at the spot they are in, 
reduce the difference of time to difference of longitude, 
and thus find that they are so many degrees east or west 
of the meridian of the place for which their chronometer 
is set. 

Quackenbos's Higher Arith.,p. 22^. 

131. Alligation treats of the mixing or combining of 
two or more articles of different values. 

RauUs Complete Arith.^p. 26g, art. 289. 

132. Alligation Medial is the process of finding the 
average value or quality of the several articles. Alliga- ' 
tion Alternate is the process of determining the propor- 
tion of the several articles used in forming a mixture. 

Id., p. 269, atts. 290-291. 

133. An Annuity is a sum of money which is paya- 
ble at regular periods of time. 

The New American Practical Arith., p. 280. 

134. A Certain Annuity is one that continues for a 
fixed period of time. A Perpetual Annuity, or Perpet- 
uity, is one that continues forever. A Contingent An- 
nuity is one that begins or ends, or begins and ends, on 
the occurrence of certain specified future events, as on 
the death of one or more persons. An Annuity in Re- 



78 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

version is one that begins at a specified future time, or 
on the occurrence of a specified future event. An An- 
nuity in Arrears, or Forborne, is one the payments of 
which have been allowed to accumulate, instead of being 
paid when due. 

Id., p. 280. 

135. Involution is the process of finding a power of 
a number. 

Hagat^s Common School Arith., p. 262. 

136. A Power of a number is the result obtained by 
using it a certain number of times as a factor. 

Id.^ p. 262, art, 653. 

137. Any number that is the product of equal fac- 
tors is called a Perfect Power. Any number that is not 
the product of equal factors is called an Imperfect 
Power. 

Id., p. 262, mt. 6^6. 

Answer 2d. A Perfect Power is a number whose 
root can be found. An Imperfect Power is a number 
whose root can not be found exactly. 

Milne's Practical Arith.,pp. jig-j20, arts.^ij-^i^. 

138. The Exponent of a power is a number placed 
at the right of the root and just above it, to show the 
number of times the root is to be used as a factor. It 
also denotes the degree of the power. Thus, 2^ denotes 
the second power of 2, or 2x2; 2^=2x2x2, or the 
third power of 2. 

The New Amencan Practical Arith. , p. 20 j. 

139. Any power of i is i ; any power of a number 
greater than i is greater than the number itself; any 
power of a number less than i, is less than the number 
itself. 

Ray's Higher Afith.yp. jjiy art. ^81, 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 79 

140. Evolution is the process of finding the roots of 
numbers. 

Common School Arith.^ H agar; p. 264., aft. 665. 

141. The Root of a number is one of the equal fac- 
tors of that number. 

Id.^ p. 264, aft. 661. 

142. The roots of numbers are indicated by the char- 
acter, V, called the Radical Sign. If no figure is written 
in the opening of the sign, the square root is indicated ; 
if the figure 3 is placed there, as ^V* the cube root; if 4, 
the fourth root ; and so on. 

Id., p. 264., afi, 66 J, 

143. The Square Root of a number is one of the two 
equal factors of that number. The Cube Root of a num- 
ber is one of the three equal factors of that number. 

Writtefi Arith., Brooks, p. 26g^ arts. 420-/}.2i, 

144. An Arithmetical Progression is a series of 
terms varying by a common difference. A Geometrical 
Progression is a series of terms varying by a common 
multiplier. 

Id.., pp. 2^8-261, afts.jSy-jg^. 

145. In Arithmetical Progression, five things are to 
be considered : The First Term, the Last Term, the 
Number of Terms, the Common Difference, and the 
Sum of the Series. Three of these being given, the oth- 
er two can be found. 

Quackaibos' s Higher Afith., p. jgj^ art. 66 y. 

146. In Geometrical Progression, five things are to 
be considered : the First Term, the Last Term, the 
Number of Terms, the Constant Multiplier, and the 
Sum of the Series. Three of these being given, the oth- 
er two can be found. 

Id., p. jpd. 

147. A Duodecimal is a denominate number in which 



80 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

twelve units of any denomination make a unit of the 
next higher denomination. 

White's Complete Arith., p. jo6, art, 4.62, 

148. Duodecimals are used by artificers in measur- 
ing surfaces and solids. 

Id., p. J 06, art. 46 J. 

149. Mensuration is the art of measuring magni- 
tudes. 

Thomson's Practical Arith., p. jj8. 

150. The term magnitude denotes that which has 
one or more of the three dimensions, length, breadth, 
and thickness. 

Id., p. 338. 

151. In measuring surfaces, it is customary to as- 
sume a square as the measuring unit, as a square inch, 
a square foot, a square rod, etc. ; that is, a square whose 
side is a linear unit of the same name. 

Id., p. 338, art. 381. 

152. By multiplying the length by the breadth. 

7^.,/. 338. 

153. By multiplying the length by the altitude. 

7^.,/. 338. 

154. By multiplying half the sum of the parallel 
sides by the altitude. 

Id, p. 338. 

155. By multiplying the base by half the altitude. 

Jd, p. 339. 

156. From half the sum of the three sides subtract 
each side respectively ; then multiply together half the 
sum and the three remainders, and extract the square 
root of the product. 

^d.,p. 339, art. 386. 

157. By multiplying the given diameter by 3. 14159. 

^d,p. 339> ^^l- 1^7' 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 81 

158. By dividing the given circumference by 3.14- 
159. 

^d.^V' 2>Z%^i'i- 388. 

159. By multiplying half the circumference by half 
the diameter ; or, by multiplying the circumference by 
a fourth of the diameter. 

^^'*P' 339- 

160. A mean proportional between two numbers is 
found by multiplying the given numbers together, and 
extracting the square root of the product. 

Id., p. 340, art. 391. 

161. By multiplying the length, breadth, and thick- 
ness together. 

Id-., p. 340. 

162. By multiplying the area of the base by the 
height. 

Id., p. 341, art. 394. 

163. By multiplying the length by the perimeter of 
the base. 

^d.,p. 341, art. 395. 

164. By multiplying the area of the base by ^ of 
the altitude. 

M, p. 341, art. sg6. 

165. By multiplying the perimeter of the base by }4 
the slant height. 

Id., p. 341. 

166. By multiplying the area of the base by the 
height or length. 

Id., p. 342, art. 400. 

167. By multiplying the circumference of the base by 
the height. 

Id., p. 342, art. 401. 

168. By multiplying the circumference by the diam- 
eter. Id., p. 342. 



82 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

169. By multiplying the surface by ^ of the diam- 
eter. 

Id^.P' lAZ.ctrt. 403. 

170. By extracting the square root of the given sur- 
face. 

Id., /. 340, art. 390. 



QUESTIONS ON GRAMMAR. 

1. Define Grammar as an art, as an acquisition, 
as a study. 

2. What is English Grammar ? 

3. What is the object of studying Grammar ? 

4. What is language, strictly speaking ? 

5. What can you say of the composition of lang- 
uage ? 

6. Under what heads is English Grammar treated 
of? 

7. Define Etymology . 

8. How are words classified ? 

9. How are words distinguished ? 

10. By what general name are the different classes 
of words called ? 

11. Why are they called parts of speech ? 

12. Give a simple and yet logical definition of 
a noun. 

13. Give a complete classification of the noun. 

14. Define and illustrate the classes of the com- 
mon noun. 

15. What may be used as nouns .-* Illustrate. 

16. What is personification ? Illustrate. 

17. Give a rule for determining what nouns should 
be considered masculine and what feminine. 

18. When and how are nouns made plural ? 

83 



84 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

19. What can you say of the gender of collective 
nouns ? 

20. How are most nouns made plural ? 

21. Mention some nouns that are used only it. 
the plural number ; some that are used in the sinc^^ular 
number only ; and some that have the same form for 
either number. 

22. How are most compound words made plural ? 

23. How is a name that begins with the title Mr., 
Miss, or Dr. made plural ? 

24. What is said of the title Mrs. ? 

25. How are letters, figures, marks and signs made 
plural ? 

^ 26. Define case. 

27. Give an outline of case. 

28. Give rules for forming the possessive. 

29. What exception to these rules ? 

30. What is the origin of the use of the possessive 
sign('s) .? 

31. What is enallage as used in grammar? 

32. What is a pronoun? 

33. What does the word pronoun mean ? 

34. For what is a pronoun used ? 

35. Into how many general classes may pronouns 
be divided ? 

36. Define a personal pronoun. 

37. Into what classes are the personal pronouns 
divided ? 

38. Name the simple personal pronouns. 

39. Name the compound personal pronouns. 

40. To which of the pronouns is it customary to 
apply gender .? 

41. Why are not the first and second persons each 
made always to represent a different gender ? 

42. What is a relative pronoun ? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK M 

43. What classes have relative pronouns ? 

44. Name the simple relative pronouns. 

45. Is As ever used as a relative pronoun ? 

46. How are Who, Which and That used ? 

47. What can you say of the declension of rela- 
tive pronouns ? 

48. When is Which preferred to That ? 

49. When is That preferred to Which ? 

50. Give the peculiar constructions of the relative 
pronoun What . 

51. When is What used ? 

52. What pronoun is used when the antecedent 
is supplied ? 

53. Give a general rule for parsing the relative 
pronoun What . 

54. How are compound Relatives formed? 
55« Name the compound relatives. 

56. Define an interrogative pronoun. 

57. What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? 

58. What may the antecedent of a pronoun be ? 

59. What is the subsequent of a pronoun ? 

60. What is the difference between the antecedent 
and the subsequent ? 

61. What are the modifications of pronouns ? 

62. Define an adjective. 

63. Into how many classes may adjectives be di- 
vided.? 

64. What is a descriptive adjective ? 

65. What is a definitive adjective ? 

^66. Into what other classes may adjectives be di- 
vided ? 

6y. Define a common adjective. 

68. Define a proper adjective. 

69. Define a participial adjective. 



Se THE NORMAL QUESTION^ BOOK. 

70. Define a compound adjective. 
7i. Define a numeral adjective. 

72. Name and define the classes into which nu- 
meral adjectives are divided. 

73. Define these classes of adjectives. 

74. Define a pronominal adjective. 

75. What modifications have adjectives? 
j^. To what adjectives is number applied ? 
'j'j. What is the comparison of an adjective ? 

78. Why is this called comparison ? 

79. How many and what are the degrees of com- 
parison ? 

80. Define the diminutiv.e degree and tell how it 
is formed. 

81. Define the positive degree. 

82. Define the comparative degree and tell how it 
is formed. 

83. Define the superlative degree and tell how it 
is formed. 

84. What is comparison ascending ? 

85. What is descending comparison ? 
Z6. What is regular comparison ? 

87. Give examples of irregular comparison. 

88. When are adjectives redundant ? 

89. Are all adjectives compared ? 

90. When monosyllabic and polysyllabic adjectives 
come together which are placed first and how are they 
compared ? 

91. What is an article? 

92. What other name is applied to this part of 
speech ? 

93. Which is the definite article and why so called ? 

94. Which is the indefinite article and why so 
called ? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 87 

95. When should A be used ? 

96. When should An be used ? 

97. When is no article used? 

98. Define a verb. 

99. How are verbs classified ? 
100. Define a regular verb. 
lOi. Define an irregular verb. 

102. Define a defective verb. 

103. Name the defective verbs. 

104. Define a redundant verb. 

105. Give examples of redundant verbs. 

106. Define an impersonal verb. 

107. Define an auxiliary verb. 

108. Why are the auxiliary verbs so called ? 

109. Name the auxiliary verbs, 
no. Define a principal verb. 

111. What is a complete verb ? 

112. Define a transitive verb. 

113. Define an intransitive verb. 

114. What is an active-transitive verb ? 

115. What is an active-intransitive verb ? 

116. What further can be said in reference to 
active-transitive and active-intransitive verbs ? 

117. What stands as an answer to What? or 
Whom ? of a transitive verb? 

118. How would you determine whether a verb is 
transitive or intransitive ? 

1 19. How many terms implied in a transitive verb ? 

120. How many terms implied in an intransitive 
verb ? 

121. May some verbs be used transitively or in- 
transitively ? Give examples. 

122. What is a copulative verb ? 

123. What is the principal copula verb ? 



88 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK- 

124. What is the peculiarity of these copula verbs ? 

125. How dp derivative verbs form their principal 
parts? 

126. What properties have verbs? 

127. Define voice. 

128. Define the active voice. 

129. Define the passive voice. 

130. What else can be said of voice ? 

131. Define Mode. 

132. Name the classes of modes. 

133. What are the finite modes ? 

134. Name the finite modes. 

135. Define the indicative mode. 

136. Define the subjunctive mode. 

137. What is the difference between the indicative 
and subjunctivt; moods ? 

138. What is the explanation of these differences ? 

139. What are the signs of the subjunctive mood ? 

140. Define the imperative mood. 

141. What is always the subject of the imperative 
mood ? 

142. Define the potential mode. 

143. Why is the potential mode so called ? 

144. What are the infinite modes ? 

145. Name the infinite modes. 

146. Define the infinitive mood. 

147. The infinitive is usually accompanied by what 
word ? 

148. After what words is the sign omitted ? 

149. How many infinitives are there ? 

150. What does the present infinitive denote? 

151. Of what does the present infinitive consist ? 

152. What does the perfect infinitive represent ? 
153' Of what does the perfect infinitive consist ? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 89 

154. What constructions have infinitives ? 

155. What is a participle ? 

156. How is the participle formed ? 

157. How many participles are there ? 

158. What is a simple participle ? 

159. What is a compound participle ? 

160. What constructions have participles ? 

161. Define tense. 

162. How many and what are the tenses ? 

163. Define the present tense. 

164. Define the past tense. 

165. Define the future tense. 

166. Define the present — perfect tense. 

167. Define the past — perfect tense. 

168. Define the future — perfect tense. 

169. By what other names are the tenses design- 
ated ? 

170. How many tenses has the indicative mood ? 

171. How many tenses has the subjunctive mood .^ 

172. How many tenses has the potential mood ? 

173. How many tenses has the infinitive mood ? 

174. How many tenses has the imperative mood ? 

175. What are the forms of the verb ? 

176. How many forms have transitive verbs ? 

177. Name these forms. 

178. How many forms have intransitive verbs? 

179. Name the forms of the intransitive verbs. 

180. Define the common form? 

181. Give examples of the common form, 

182. Define the emphatic form. 

183. Give examples of the emphatic form. 

184. In what other way is the emphatic form used? 

185. Give examples. 

186. Define the progressive form. 



90 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

187. Give examples of the progressive form. 

188. When is the progressive form used? 

189. How "is it formed? 

190. Define the passive form. 

191. Where is the passive form used? 

192. How is it formed? 

193. Define the ancient form. 

194. What other forms are recognized by some 
grammarians ? 

195. How is the interrogative form made ? 

196. How is the interrogative form made in the 
present and past tenses ? 

197. How is the negative form made ? 

198. From what do the compound forms result ? 

199. What persons and numbers have verbs ? 

200. What is conjugation ? 

201. What is synopsis ? 

202. What is the inflection of a verb ? 

203. How many conjugations have verbs? 

204. What verbs are of the weak conjugation? 

205. What verbs are of the strong conjugation ? 

206. What is the theme of the verb ? 

207. What is a paradigm ? 

208. What is it to make a verb ? 

209. What is it to tell where a verb is made ? 

210. Give an example. 

211. What is the root of the verb ? 

212. What are the principal parts of a verb ? 

213. Why are they so called ? 

214. Define an adverb. 

215. How are adverbs classified ? 

216. What is a modifying adverb? 

217. What is a conjunctive adverb ? 

218. To what is an adverb equivalent ? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 91 

219. From what are adverbs derived ? 

• 220. What general rule can be given in reference 
to the position of the adverb ? 

221. What modifications have adverbs ? 

222. Define a preposition. 

223. Into how many classes are prepositions 
divided ? 

224. Define a simple preposition. 

225. Define a compound preposition. 

226. Definea complex preposition. 

227. Define a conjunction. 

228. How are conjunctions classified ? 

229. How are conjunctions classified as to rank ? 

230. What are co-ordinate connectives ? 

231. What are subordmate connections ? 

232. How are conjunctions classified as to signifi- 
cation ? 

233. Define a copulative conjunction. 

234. Define a disjunctive conjunction. 

235. Define an interjection. 

236. Define syntax. 

237. Define a sentence. 

238. What does the expression of a thought in- 
volve ? 

239. What is the subject of a sentence ? 

240. What is the predicate of a sentence ? 

241. How are sentences classified ? 

242. Name the sentences of the first division. 

243. Define a simple sentence. 

244. Define a complex sentence. 

245. Define a compound sentence. 

246. Define a complete sentence. 

247. Define an abridged sentence. 

248. How are sentences classified as to the nature 
of the proposition ? 



92 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

249. Define a declarative sentence. 

250. Define an interrogative sentence. 

251. Define an imperative sentence. 

252. Define an exclamatory sentence. 

253. What are the elements of a sentence ? 

254. Into what can all sentences be resolved ? 

255. What is a proposition ? 

256. How many parts has every proposition ? 

257. Define a clause. 

258. How is a clause always used ? 

259. Define a phrase. 

260. What is a modifier ? 

261. What is analysis ? 

262. Define synthesis. 

263. Define elHpsis. 

264. What is parsing ? 

265. What is prosody ? 

266. What is verse ? 

267. How is poetry distinguished from prose ? 

268. How many kinds of verse are there ? 

269. Define rhyme. 

270. Define blank verse. 

271. What is meant by the quantity of a syllable? 

272. What is a foot ? 

273. What is a figure ? 

274. Name the figures of grammar. 

275. What is a figure of orthography ? 

276. What is a figure of etymology ? 

277. What is a figure of syntax ? 

278. What is a figure of rhetoric ? 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON GRAM- 
MAR- 



1. Grammar, as an art, is the power of reading, 
writing, and speaking correctly. As an acquisition, it 
is the essential skill of scholarship. As a study, it is 
the practical science which teaches the right use of 
language. 

Goold Brow7i's Grammar of Grammars^ p. i^S- 

2. English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language, according to established 
usage. 

Filmed s A 7ialytical Grammar^ p, 7, art. /. 

3. The object of studying grammar is to be able 
to understand, speak, and write a language correctly. 

Harfs English Grammar and A nalysis, p. p. 

4. Language is any method of communicating 
thought or feeling. 

Holbrookes Complete English Grammary p, ^, art. 6. 

5. The composition of language is of two kinds, 
prose and verse. 

Brown! s Grammar of Grammars, p. 14.6. 

6. English Grammar is treated of under four 
heads: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Pros- 
ody. 

Pinned s Analytical Grammar ^ p. 7, art. 3. 

7. Etymology treats of 

1st. The Classification of words, 
93 



»* THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

2d. The Properties of words. 
3d. The Derivation of words. 

Id., p. 8, art. 10. 

8. In a Discourse, words are (classified) used — 

1. As Names of beings, places, or things; 

2. As Substitutes for names or facts; 

3. As Qualifiers or Limiters of names; 

4. To assert action, being, or condition; 

5. To modify an assertion or a quality; 

6. To express relations of things or of thoughts; 

7. To introduce or to connect words and sen- 
tences; 

8. To express a sudden or an intense emotion, 
or, 

9. For Rhetorical effect. 

Clark's Normal Grammar, p, ly. 

9. By their uses — 

Words are distinguished as, 

1. Nouns, 5. Adverbs, 

2. Pronouns, 6. Prepositions, 

3. Adjectives, 7. Conjunctions, 

4. Verbs, 8. Exclamations, and 

9. Words of Euphony. 

Id., p. 77. 

10. The several kinds, or classes of words, are 
called by the general name of Parts of Speech. 

Pinned s A nalytical Grammar, p. 8, art. 11. 

11. The word parts means division, and speech 
means languaf^e, so that the expression, parts of 
speech, means division of language. 

Id., p. p, art. 12. 

12. A Noun is a name-word. 

Sivintons Language Primer, p. 8, 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



95 



13. 



Nouns. 



f Proper. 
1 Common; 



including ] 

Collective, I 

Abstract, 

Verbal, 

Diminutive, 

Class. 



Gender. 



\ 



Properties 

or 
Modifications. 



Number. 



Case. 



Masculine, 
Feminine, 
Common, 
[ Neuter. 
( First, 
Person. < Second, 
(Third. • 
r Singular, 
'• \ Plural. 
(Nominative, 
I Possessive, 
j Objective, 
[Independent. 

14. A collective noun is a name, singular in form, 
but plural in meaning; as, crowd, company, fleet. 

Holbrook, p. 31, art, 32. 
An abstract noun is the name of a quality con- 
sidered apart from the substance to which it belongs ; 
as, sweetness, beauty. Abstract nouns are derived 
from adjectives. 

Hart, p. 26. 
A verbal noun is the name of an action or state 
of being; as, singing, standing, seeing. 

Harvey, p. 26, art. 8. 
A diminutive noun is one derived from another 
noun, and expressing some object of the same kind but 
smaller; as, stream, streamlet; hill, hillock. 

Hart, p. 26. 
Class nouns are names which can be applied to 
each individual of a class or group of objects; as, horse, 
apple, man. 

Harvey, /. 25. 

15. All words, signs, phrases, and sentences taken 
technically (that is, independently of their meaning, 
and merely as things spoken of), are nouns; or, rath- 



96 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK* 

er, are things read and construed as nouns; because, 
in such a use, they temporarily assume the syntax of 
nouns. Adjectives made nouns: "The Ancient of 
Days did sit." — Bible. Pronouns made nouns: "The 
nameless He, whose nod is Nature's birth." — Young. 

Verbs made nouns: "Avaunt all altitude, and 
stare, and start theatric." — Cowper. 

Participles made nouns: ''For the crying of the 
poor and the sighing of the needy, I will arise." — Bi- 
ble. 

Adverbs made nouns: "In these cases we ex- 
amine the why, the what, and the how of things." — 
LEstrange. 

Conjunctions made nouns: **Your if is the only 
peace-maker; much virtue is in your if'' — Shak. 

Prepositions made nouns: "O, not like me; for 
mine's beyond, beyond!' — Shak. 

Interjections made nouns: "With hark and 
whoop and wild halloo." — Scott. 

Brown's Gram, of Gram., pp. 238-239. 

Phrases made nouns: ^^ Towards the earth's cen- 
tre is down." 

Kerlyp. 71. 

Sentences made nouns: ^* ^ We celebrate this 
day\ was printed on their banners." 

Holbrook, p. 31. 

Signs used as nouns: * is called an asterisk. 

Id, p. 31. 

16. Personification means considering inanimate 
objects as persons endued with life; as, we say of the 
earth, ''she is fruitful;" of the sun, ''he has risen in his 
strength;" of time, "he flies on rapid wings." 

Hart, p. 27. 

17. No uniform rule can be given. In general, 
however, nouns become masculine which indicate su- 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 97 

perior strength, energy and firmness. Those, on the 
contrary, are feminine which indicate deHcacy, weak- 
ness or timidity. Examples of those which are con- 
sidered mascuHne are, sun, time, death, etc. Examples 
of feminine are, moon, earth, church, nature, etc. 

Id., p. 27. 

18. When they refer to a class of the same char- 
acter they are made plural by adding s when it does 
not coalesce in sound, otherwise es\ as, the Cherokees; 
the Napoleons; the twelve Caesars. 

Common School Question Book, p. 150. 

19. When the collective noun is used in th« plural 
number, or when it denotes the whole collection as one 
thing, it is of the neuter gender; when it is used other- 
wise, its gender corresponds with the sex of the indi- 
viduals composing the collection. Ex. — ''Every gen- 
eration has its peculiarities." 'The congregation will 
please to retain their seats." 

Kerl, p. 82, art. 226. 

20. Most nouns are made plural by adding i- to the 
singu^ ''.r. 

21 Ashes, annals, cattle, scissors, suds, tongs; 
pride, place, business, gold; news, wages, bellows, 
measles. 

Id., pp. ^j, %Z. 

22. In compound words the sign of the plural is 
commonly added to the important part; 2.s, fathers-in- 
law ; fly-traps ; courts-martial ; song-queens. 

Holbrook., p. 33. 

23. ?yf making plural the title only; as, Mr. Har- 
per, Mes.'.rs. Harper] Miss Brown, the Misses Brown; 
Dr. Lci. Drs. Lee. p 

Kerl, p. 92, art. 259. 

24. V/hen the title is Mrs.^ or when the word tzvOy 
threey etc., stands before the title, the latter noun is 

r 



98 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

made plural. "The Mrs. Barlows." 'The two Miss 
Scotts." 

Kerl p. 92, art. 260. 

25. As follows: **Mind your /'.y and ^V;" the 9's 
and ii's; the *'s; the +'s; ''those 3's and §'s. 

Harvey y p. 29. 

26. Case is that modification of nouns and pro- 
nouns which, by means of form or position, indicates 
their relation to other words, or their independent use. 

HolbrooMs Grammar^ p. 35. 

27. Case. 

1. Nominative. 

I. Constructions: 

1. Dependent. 

1. Subj. of finite verb, 

2. In the predicate, 

3. In apposition with a noun or pro- 

noun, 

4. In apposition with a sentence. 

2. Absolute constructions: 

1. By direct address, 

2. By exclamation, 

3. By inscription, 

4. By pleonasm, 

5. With a participle. 

2. Possessive, 

I. Constructions: 

1, Limiting noun of different signifi- 

cation, 

2. Limiting noun of same signification. 

3. Objective. 

I. Constructions: 

I. Obj. of transitive verb in active 
voice, 



THE NOKMAL QUESTION BOOK. 99 

2. Obj. of a preposition, 

3. Sub. of an infinitive, 

4. In the predicate, 

5. In apposition, 

6. By enallage for the possessive. 



28. 



(i.) In the singular, by adding an apostrophe 
and letter s to the nominative form. 

2. In the plural (a.), when nom. ends in s, by 
adding only the apostrophe. 

(b.) Irregular plurals in the same way as the 
singular. 

29. S is frequently omitted, when its addition 
would occasion too many successive sounds of s. 

Id., p, 36. 

30. It is an abbreviation of the old English geni- 
tive, ending es or is\ the sign ' being called an apostro- 
phe, because it indicates the omission of the e or i. 

Id., p. 36. 

31. A change of words, or a substitution of one 
gender, number, case, person, tense, mood or voice of 
the same word, for another. 

Webster s Unabridged. 

32. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 
Bingham! s Grammar of the E7iglish Language, p. 40. 

33. The word proneun means for a noun. 

Id., p. 40. 

34. A Pronoun is used to avoid the unpleasant 
repetition of a noun. 

Fewsmith' s Elementary Grammar, /. 5 5 • 
The common definition of a pronoun, that it is 
a ''word used instead of a noun," is not correct. A 
pronoun is simply a noun expressing its peculiar 



100 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

meaning as completely as a noun of any other class 
expresses its .own meaning. 

Butler's Practical and Critical Grammar, p. 32. 

The pronoun takes the place of the noun, not 
merely to be a substitute for it, or to avoid a disagree- 
able repetition, but to represent it in some important 
relation. 

Greene s English Grammar, p. 69. 

35. Pronouns may be divided into four classes: 
personal, relative, interrogative, and indefinite. 

Practical and Critical Grammar^ Butler, /^. 33- 

36. A Personal Pronoun is a Pronoun whose form 
determines its person and number. 

Clai'k' s Normal Grammar, p. 92, Def. 95. 

37. Personal pronouns, have the sub-classes Sim- 
ple and Compound. 

Complete English Grammar^ Holbrooke p. 39, 

38. The simple personal pronouns are, I, thou or 
you, he, she, it; and their plurals, we, ye, they, etc. 

Id.,p, 39, Art. 234. 

39. The compound personal pronouns are, myself, 
thyself, himself, herself, itself; and their plurals, our- 
selves, yourselves, themselves, etc. 

Id., p. 39, Art. 235. 

40. To the third person singular, he, she, it. 

English Grammar, Smith, p. ig. Art. 135. 

41. The first and second persons being always 
present, their genders are supposed to be known. 

Id., p. 19, Art. 136 

42. A Relative pronoun is one that may stand for 
any grammatical person; and connects clauses; as, I 
who speak will lead the way. 

Holbrooky p. 39. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 101 

43. Relative pronouns have the sub-classes Sim- 
ple, Compound, and Double. 

Id,, p. 39, Art. 237. 

44. Who, which, and that. 

45. English Grammaf, Smith, p. 58. 
As, by an ellipsis of the relative, after such, many, 

or same., seems to take its place, and m'ay be re- 
garded as a relative, though properly speaking, it is 
never a relative. 

E7iglish Grammar, Greene, p. y8. 

46. 

(a.) Who is used when the antecedent denotes 
a person : As, **The boy who studies." 
Bingham' s Grammar of the English Language p. ^j-, 

§3,/^r. 5. 

(b.) Which is used when the antecedent de- 
notes a lower animal, or a thing without life ; as, "The 
horse ivhich I saw." 

Id., p. 45, § l\,par. 6. 

(c.) That is used in the place oiwho or which; 
*The Girl that we saw." 
Id.,p.A^, § 31,/^^. 7- 

47. 

Who is varied in declension to indicate the 
cases only. Which, that and zvhat are not declined. 
But the word zvhose is also used as the possessive of 
7 'hich. 



Nom. 


Pos. 


Obj. 


Indep. 


Who, 


Whose, 


Whom, 


Who or Whom. 


Which, 


Whose, 


Which, 


W^hich. 


That, 




That, 


That. 


What, 




What, 


What. 



Normal Grammar, Clark, p. 95, Def. 96, Obs. 3. 



102 THE NOEMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

48. 

Which is preferred to that when it introduces 
an explanatory proposition. 

English Grammar y Lee & Hadleyy p. i§o. 
49. 

That is generally preferred to which when it 
joins a restrictive proposition to its antecedent. 
Ex. — *'I love the flag that moved through the peril- 
ous fight." 

Id., p. 150, 
50. 

(a.) What is both a relative pronoun and a 
limiting adjective, and is equivalent as an adjective to 
that or those, as relative to which, and, consequently, 
has a double construction. 

English Grammr, Greene, p, JJ. 
(b.) The chief characteristic of the relative, 
whaty is its double use ; being equivalent to that 
[thing] which, all which, the [thing] which, or those 
[things] which, &c. 

Complete English Grammar, Holbrook, p. 41, 
(c.) What by some authors is considered a 
simple relative, by some a double relative, and by 
others a compound relative. 

On page 58 in Harvey's English Grammar ; page 95 
Clark's Normal Grammar ; page yy Greene's English 
Grammar, and in many others it is classed as a simple 
relative. In Holbrook's Complete English Grammar, 
page 41, it is classed as the double relative. 

In Smith's New English Grammar, page 60, it is 
called a compound relative pronoun. 

51. What is used only when the antecedent is 
omitted. 

BingharrCs Grant" 
mar of the English Language, /. 46. 



THE KORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 103 

52. If the antecedent is supplied, which must al- 
ways be used. 

Id., p. 47. 

53. What, when a relative, can be changed into 
that which, or the thing which; as, *' Tell me what 
[that which] you know." That, or the thing, should 
be parsed as the antecedent part of what, and which 
as the relative. 

English Grammar y Harvey , p. ^^^ Rem. 4. 

54. The Compound Relatives are formed by add- 
ing ever, so, and soever to the simple relatives. 

Id., p. 59, ^r/. 70. 

55. They are whoever, whoso, whosoever, which- 
soever, whichever, whatever, and whatsoever. 

Id., p. 59, Art. 70. 

56. An Interrogative Pronoun is one used for ask- 
ing a question, in answering a question indefinitely, 
and in similar indefinite expressions; as who, which, 
and what in the following sentences: 

Question. — Who did it? Which was it? What 
is truth.? 

Indefinite Answers. — I know not who did it, 
which it was, what truth is. 

Indefinite Expressions. — Find out who did it, 
which it was, what truth is. 

English Grammar, Quackenbos, p. 6Z, Art. 166. 

57. The Antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, or 
equivalent expression, instead of which the pronoun 
is used. 

English Grammar, Harvey, p. 50, Art. 57. 

58. The Antecedent may be a noun, a different 
pronoun, a phrase, or a clause. 

Id., p. SO, Art, 57. 

59. Interrogatives, or relatives of the interroga- 



104 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

tive kind, when they are used in asking questions, have 
no antecedents, but relate to some word or phrase con- 
tained in the answer, which is called a subsequent. 
English Grammar, Smith, p. 6i. 

60. The antecedent and subsequent are opposed 
to each other in meaning; the former signifying going 
before, the latter following after. 

Id., p. 61. 

61. Pronouns have the same modifications of Gen- 
der, Person, Number, and Case, as Nouns. 

Normal Grammar, Clark, p. 92. 

62. An Adjective is a word limiting a noun or pro- 
noun. 

Complete English Grammar, Holbrook, p. 55. 

63. Adjectives may be divided into two chief 
classes: descriptive and definitive. 

KerVs Common School Grammar, p. 108, Art, 318. 

64. A Descriptive Adjective describes or qualifies. 
Ex. — "The green forest glowed in golden light." 

Id., p. 108, Arty 319. 

65. A Definitive Adjective merely specifies or 
limits. Ex. — There are many wealthy farmers in this 
country. Id., p. 108, Art, 320. 

66. Adjectives may be divided into several small- 
er classes; namely, common, proper, participial, com- 
pound, numeral, and pronominal. 

Id., p. 108, Art. 321. 

67. A Common Adjective is any ordinary abjec- 
tive that expresses quahty or circumstance; as, good, 
upper, daily. 

Id., p. 108, A7^t. 322. 
6%. A Proper Adjective is an adjective derived 
from a proper noun; as, French, American, Webster- 
ian. 

English Qrammar, Harvey, p. 38, Art. 43. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 105 

69. A Participial Adjective is one that has the 
form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the 
idea of time; as, an amusing story. 

First Lilies of English Grammar, Goold Brown, 
p. 30. 

70. A compound adjective is one that consists of 
two or more words joined together; as, nut-brown, 
laughter-loving. 

Id., p. 30, Rem. VI. 

71. A numei^l adjective is* a definitive adjective 
that expresses number. 

Common School Grammar, Kerl, p. 109, Art. 326. 

72. Numeral Adjectives are divided into four 
classes; cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative, and indefin- 
ite. 

Id., p. I op, Art. 327. 

73. 

1. A cardinal numeral tells how many; as, one, 
two. 

2. An ordinal numeral tells which one; as, first, 
second. 

3. A multiplicative numeral tells how many fold; 
as, single, double. 

4. An indefinite numeral expresses number in- 
definitely; as, few, many. 

Id., p. 109, Art. 327. 
74. Ans. No. r. Pronominal Adjectives are defin- 
itives, most of which may, without an article prefixed, 
represent a noun understood; as, all xntn, each soldier. 
English Grammar, Harvey, p. 40, Art. 46. 
Ans. No. 2. Pronominal adjectives are defini- 
tive adjectives that are sometimes used as pronouns. 
Common School Grammar, Kerl, p. 109, Art. 328. 
Ans. No. 3. A pronominal adjective is a defin- 
itive word which may either accompany its noun, or 



106 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

represent it understood; as, ''All [men] join to guard 
what each [man] desires to gain."— P^?/^. 

First Lilies 'of English Grammar, Brown, p. 2,0. 
75. Modifications: Number; Comparison. 
Complete Eriglish Grammar, Holbrook, p. 57, Art. 328. 
^6. Number is applied to the adjectives this and 
that; which have the plurals these and those. One 
has its plurals, ones^few^ several, many; each has its 
plural, all. 

Id,, p. ^7, Art. 329. 
jj. The Comparison of an Adjective is a state- 
ment of its different forms. 

Practical and Critical Grammar, Butler, p. 69. 
78. This is called comparison because the object 
of changing the forms of adjectives is to express com- 
parison. 

Id., p. 6p, 

79. 

Ans. No. I. The Degrees of Comparison arc 
three, Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

English Grammar and Analysis, Hart, p. ^i. 

Ans. No. 2. There may be four degrees of 
comparison. 

1. Diminutive, Bluish, Saltish, 

2. Positive, Blue, Salt, 

3. Comparative, Bluer. Salter, 

4. Superlative, Bluest, Saltest. 

Normal Grarnmar, Clark, p. 106. 

80. The Diminutive Degree denotes an amount 
of the quality less than the positive. It is commonly 
formed by adding ish to the form of the Positive. 
Ex. — Blu/V^, Salt/y/^. Id., p. 106, Def. 108. 

81. The Positive Degree expresses quality in its 
simplest form. Ex. — Blue, salt, large. 

Id., p. 106, Def. I op. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 107 

82. The Comparative Degree expresses an in- 
crease or a decrease of the Positive. It is commonly 
formed by adding er^ or the words 7nore or less, to the 
form of the Positive. Ex. — Larger, pur^r, richer, 
more common, less objectionable. 

83. The Superlative Degree expresses the great- 
est increase or decrease of the quaUty of the Adject- 
ive. It is commonly formed by adding est, or the 
words most or least, to the form of the Positive. 
Ex. — hdirgest, most ungrateful, upper;;^^^/. 

Id., p. 106, Def. III. 

84. In Ascending comparison, the comparative 
and superlative degrees are regularly formed. 

1st. By adding to the positive of monosyl- 
lables, r or er for the compartive, and st or est for the 
superlative ; as, wise, wiser, wisest. 

2d. By prefixing to the positive of adjectives 
of more than one syllable, more for the comparative, 
and most for the superlative ; as, honorable, more 
honorable, most honorable. 

English Grammar, Harvey, p. ^5, A rt. ^2, 

85. In Descending comparison, the comparative 
is formed by prefixing less, and the superlative by 
prefixing least, to the positive ; as, wise, less wise, 
least wise. 

Id., p. 46, Art. 52. 
^6. Regular Comparison is made by adding to the 
positive, er for the comparative, and est for the super- 
lative. Ex. — soft, softer, softest. 

Complete English Grammar, Ho I brook, p. 57, Art. 339. 
S7. Positive, good — Comparative, better — Super- 
lative, best. 

Id., p. 58, Art. 344. 
88. Some adjectives having more than one super- 



108 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

lative are redundant ; as, fore, former, foremost or 
first, near, nearer, nearest or next. 

Id., p. SS,Art. 342. 
89. 

A71S. No. I. Some Adjectives cait not be com- 
pared — the qualities they indicate not being suscept- 
ible of increase or diminution. Ex. — Round, square^ 
triangular, infinite. 

Normal Grammar, Clark, p. 108, Art. 7. 

Ans. No. 2. It is hypercritically affirmed by 
most grammarians that such adjectives as round, 
straight, perfect, and complete, do not admit of com- 
parison. All usage, however, is against them. It is 
obvious to any one but a grammarian, that more 'per- 
fect,' 'more complete,' &c., are abbreviated expres- 
sions for "more nearly perfect," &c. 
Complete English Grammar, Holbrook,^. 58, Art. 353. 

A71S. No. 3. Adjectives denoting qualities which 
cannot exist in different degrees, can not, with pro- 
priety, be compared — though some writers, not taking 
them in their full sense, often use them in the com- 
parative- and superlative degrees. 

Ex. — Blind, perfect, straight. " My sincerest re - 
gards," " Our sight is the most perfect of our senses.'' 
English Grammar, Harvey, p. 45 , Art. 51. 

Ans. No. 4. Adjectives which express a posi- 
tive or absolute degree of quality are not compared- 
Such are square, circular, universal, &c. But as very 
few things on earth come up to an absolute standard, 
usage sanctions the giving to positive terms a co m- 
parative meaning. Thus, we say, "A is more upright 
than B," meaning that A comes nearer to being an 
upright man than B. 
BingJiani s Grammar of the English Language, p. 38> 

§ 2^, par. 12, Rents. 5 and 6. 



THE NOR:\rAL QUESTION BOOK. 109 

90. When monosyllabic and 4)olysyIlabic adject- 
ives come together, the monosyllables are placed first, 
and all are compared by prefixing more and most ; as, 
^' The more nice and elegant parts." 

English Grammar, Harvey, p. 46, Art. ^2, Rem. 2. 

91. An article is the word the, a, or an, placed 
before a noun to limit its meaning. 

KcrVs Common School Grammar, p. 105, Art. 306. 

92. That of definitive adjectives. 

Bingham's Grammar of the English Language, p 39 
§27. 

93. The is called the definite article, because it 
points out some particular thing. 

Greenes English Grammar, p. 59, Art. 57. 

94. (a.) A or an is called the indefinite article, 
because it does not point out any particular thino-. 

Id., p. 59, Art. 57. 
(b.) A and an are both called the indefinite ar- 
ticle ; because they are but a later and an earlier form 
of the same word, have the same meanino-, and 
differ in use only. 

KerVs Commo7t School Grammar, p. 106, Art. 312. 

95. A should be used whenever the next word 
begins with a consonant sound. 

Id., p. 106, Art. 313. 

96. An should be used whenever the next word 
begins with a vowel sound. 

Id., p. 107, Art. 314. 

97. No Article is used when we refer chiefly to the 
nature of the object, to the class generally, or to only 
a part Indefinitely ; also when the substantive is suffi- 
ciently definite itself, or is rendered so by other words. 

Id., p. 107, Art. 315. 

98. A Verb is a word which expresses being, ac- 



110 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

tion, or state ; as, I am ; George writes ; the house 
stands. 

Harvey, p. 66, Art. 79. 

99. Ans. No. I. Verbs are divided, according to 
their use, into transitive and intransitive ; according 
to their form, into regular and irregular. 

English Grammar, Greene, pp. Z6 and 89, Arts. 82 

and 84. 

Ans. No. 2. With respect to their use, verbs 
may be divided into Copulative, Transitive, and In- 
transitive. With respect to their nature, into Active, 
Passive, and Neuter. With respect to their form, in- 
to Regular or Irregular. 
English Grammar, Harvey, pp. 66 and 6%, Arts. 80, 

81 and 82. 

Ans. No. 3. Verbs are divided according to the 
functions they perform, into, I. Complete Verbs. II. 
Incomplete Verbs. 

Swinton's Progressive Grammar, p. 20, Art. 6\. 

Ans. No. 4. Verbs are divided, with respect to 
their form, into four classes ; regular, irregular, redun- 
dant, and defective. Verbs are divided again, with 
respect to their signification, into four classes ; active- 
transitive, active-intransitive, passive and neuter. 
First Lines of English Grammar, Brown, p. 39. 

A7ts. No. 5. Verbs are divided, in regard to the 
chief mode of combining them, into principal and 
auxiliary. 

KerVs Common School Grammar, p. 128, Art. 390. 

100. Ans. No. I. A regular verb is one in which 
the past tense and the perfect participle are formed 
by adding d or ed to the present. 

English Grammar, Lee and Hadley, p. 1 80. 
Ans. No. 2. A regular verb is one which forms 



THE NOEMAL QUESTION BOOK. Ill 

Its past indicative and past participle by adding ed to 
the present by the rules of spelling. 
Complete English Grammar, Holbrook, p. 6i, Arl. 379. 
lOi. An irregular verb is one which does not form 
its past indicative and past participle by adding ed to 
the present. 

Id., p. 61, Arl. 380. 

102. A verb is said to be defective when some of 
its parts are wanting. 

E^iglish Grammar, Quackenbos, p. 138, Art. 385. 

103. The defective verbs are ought, beware, would, 
quoth or quod, wit, wis, wot, methinks, and meseems. 

Id., p. 138, Art. 385. 

104. A Redundant Verb is a verb that has more 
than one form for some of the modes and tenses. 

Clark's Normal Grammar, p. 114, Def. 123. 

105. Examples of Redundant Verbs, — Am or be — 
Break, broke or brake, broken or broke. 

Id., p. 114, Def. 123. 

106. An impersonal verb is one by which an action 
or state is asserted independently of any particular 
subject. 

Ex. — It rains. It snows. It thunders. 

Greene s English Grammar, p. 90, A rt. 84. 

107. Auxiliary Verbs are those by the help of 
which the different modes, tenses, numbers, etc., are 
formed. 

Ajtalytical Grammar, Pinneo, p. 73, Art. 173. 

108. They are so called, because auxiUary means 
helping. 

Id., p. 73, Art. 174. 

109. The auxiliary verbs are, shall, should, will, 
would ; may, might ; can, could, (having two tenses); 
must, (with one tense); and do, be, and have, used in 
all the tenses. Id.^ p. 73, Art. 175. 



112 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

1 10. A Principal Verb is a verb that expresses by 
itself the act or state, or the chief part of it. 

KerFs Cominon School Grammar^ p. i2S,ArL 391. 

111. AC omplete Verb is a verb that has an appro- 
priate form for all the modes and tenses. Ex. — Love, 
Recite — See — Teach. 

Clark's Normal Grammar, p. 114, Def. 121. 

112. A transitive verb receives or requires an ob- 
ject to complete its meaning. 

Greenes English Grammar, p. %6, Art. 82. 

113. An intransitive verb neither receives nor re- 
quires an object to complete its meaning. 

Id., p. m, Art. 82. 

114. An active-transitive verb is a verb that ex- 
presses an action which has some person or thing for 
its object; as, "Cain Slew Abel!' 

First Lines of English Grammar, Brown, p. 39, Chap. 
VI. 

115. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that ex- 
presses an action which has no person or thing for its 
object; as, "John walks." 

Id., p. 39, Chap. VI. 

116. The subdivision of verbs into active-transitive 
ahd active-intransitive is not only needless, but par- 
tial in its application. The distinction is made to ap- 
ply exclusively to active verbs; whereas it may apply 
as well to neuter as to active verbs. 

Greene's English Grammar, p. ^J^ Art. 82. 

117. The object- or complement of the transitive 
verb stands as an answer to the question What? or 
Whom? with the verb. 

Id., p. S7, Art. 82. 

118. To determine whether a verb is transitive or 
intransitive, we have only to use this test: ask with it 
the question What? or Whom? and if, in its significa- 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 113 

tion as used in the example in question, it has, as an- 
swer, a noun or a pronoun, meaning' a different thing 
from the subject, or if one is obviously required to 
complete the meaning intended, it is transitive; other- 
wise it is intransitive. 

Id., pp. S7 and '^Z, Art. '^2. 

119. A transitive verb in a proposition necessarily 
implies three terms, — a subject, a predicate, and an ob- 
ject. 

Ex. — Caesar (sub.) crossed (pred.) the Rubicon 
(obj.) Id.,p.U. 

120. An intransitive verb requires but two terms, 
— a subject and a predicate; as, "The tempest (sub.) 
rages (pred.) 

Id.,p, %Z. 

121. Some verbs are, in their nature, Transitive, 
others are naturally Intransitive; and some others are 
used transitively or intransitively. 

EXAMPLES : 

1. "Cold blows the wind." "Blows" is Intran- 
sitive. 

2. "The wind blows the dust." "Blows" is 
Transitive. 

3. "It has swept through the earth." Intran- 
sitive. 

4. Jane has swept the floor." Transitive. 

5. "God moves in a mysterious way." Intran- 
sitive. 

6. "Such influences do not move me." Tran- 
sitive. 
Clark's Normal Grammar, p. 113, Def. 116, Obs. i, 

122. Afis. No. I. A Copulative verb is used to as- 
sert the predicate of a proposition of the subject; as, 
"Sugar is sweet." 

Harvey's English Grammar, p. 66, Art. 80. 



114 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

A7ZS. No. 2. Incomplete verbs that require as 
complement a word (adjective, noun, or pronoun) re- 
lating to their subject are called Neuter or Copula 
verbs. 
Swintons Progressive English Grammar, /. 21, An. 

65. 

123. The principal Copula verb is the verb To Be. 
Other verbs belonging to this class are Become, Seem, 
Appear, Grow, Feel, Look, Smell, Taste. 

Id., p. 21, Art. 66. 

124. A peculiarity of these Copula verbs is that 
each implies in its meaning the verb To Be. Thus 'Be- 
come' is really to come to be; 'Appear' is to be in ap- 
pearance. 

Id., p. 21, Art. 66. 

125. A derivative verb generally forms its princi- 
pal parts in the same way as the primitive verb. 

Ex. — Mistake, mistook, mistaken; under^^, un- 
dertuent, undergo^ie. 

KerVs Common School Grammar, p, 126, Art. 372. 

126. To verbs belong voice, mood, tense, number, 
and person. 

Butler s Practical and Critical Grammar, p. yy. 

127. A7ZS. No. I. Voice is a property of transitive 
verbs founded on the relation of the subject to the 
action. 

Id., p. 77. 

Ans. 2. Voice is that modification of the verb 
which shows the relation between the verb and its 
subject. 
Complete English Grammar, Holbrook, p. 64, Art. 41 1^ 

128. The active voice represents the subject as act- 
ing. 

English Grammar y Greene, p. 91, Art. 87. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 115 

129. The passive voice represent the subject as 

acted upon. 

Id., p. 91, Art. 87. 

130. Ans. No. I. Voice is a property that belongs 
to transitive verbs only. 

KerVs Common School Grammar, p. 129, Art. 398. 
Ans. No. 2. All intransitive verbs are in the 
active voice because they have the form of verbs whose 
subjects act. 
Complete English Grammar, Holbrook, p. 64. Art. 413. 

131. Mode is that modification of the verb which 
indicates the manner or condition of the assertion. 

Id., p. 64, Art. 421. 

132. Modes are of two classes: Finite and Infinite. 

Id., p. 64, Art. 421. 

133. The Finite modes are those which are finited 
or limited by person and number. 

Id., p. 64, Art. 422." 

134. The finite modes are the Indicative, Potential, 
Subjunctive, and Imperative. * 

Id., p. 64, Art. 422. 

135. The Indicative mood is ust d to declare a thing 
as a fact or to ask a question; as, "He loves." — "Does 
he love ? 

Grammar of the English Language., Bingham, p. 59, 
§42. 

136. The Subjunctive mood represents a thing not 
as a fact, but as simply conceived in the mind; as, "If 
I were a king." 

Id., p. 59> § 42. 
* It may be well to state that all grammarians 
do not agree with this classification. Some authori- 
ties as Butler, for instance, do not recognize the Poten- 
tial mode; others ignore the Subjunctive, etc. The 
classification given is, however, the one most general- 
ly accepted. 



116 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK- 

137. The only difference between the Subjunctive 
mood and the Indicative mood is in the third person 
singular of two of the tenses, the present and the pre- 
sent perfect. Thus: 

Indicative Present. Subjunctive Present. 

(If though, &c.), he loves. (If, though,&c.), he love. 

Indicative Pres. Perfect. Subjunctive Pres. Perfect. 
(If or though) he has loved. (If or though) he have loved. 
Progi'essive EnglisJi Grammar^ Swinton, pp. 4g, and 
49, Art. 158. 

138. The explanation of these differences is, that in 
what is called the Subjunctive mood there is an auxil- 
iary left out — either the word will, or the words may 
can^ should. 

Id., p. 49, Art. 159. 

139. The subjunction is used for the most part in 
propositions expressing a condition or a supposition, 
after the conjunctions if, unless, except, though, 
whether, lest, afeid until. It is now rarely used, the 
forms of the indicative having taken its place. 
Bingham's Grammar of the English Language, p. 59, 

§42, Rem. 2. 

140. The imperative mood is- used in commanding, 
exhorting, or entreating; as, "Children, obey your 
parents." "Always tell the truth." ''Save me, Hu- 
bert ! Save me !" Id., p. 60, § 43. 

141. The imperative is now used only in the sec- 
ond person, singular and plural, and the subject is 
generally omitted, as it is always the pronoun you, 
and the person addressed is sufficiently known with- 
out expressing it. * 

Id., p. 60, § 43, Rem. 2. 

142. The Potential Mood denotes power, possibil- 
ity, liberty, obligation, and determination. 

Analytical Grantmar, Pinneo, p. 63, Art. 146. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 117 

143. This is SO called, because potential means 
able, having power. 

Id., p. 63, Art. 142. 

144. The Infinite modes are those which have no 
limitation of person and number. 

Complete English Grammar, Holbrooke p. 69, Art. 476. 

145. They are ordinarily called Infinitives and Par- 
ticiples. 

Id., p. 69, Art. 477. 
146. 

Def. No. I. The Infinitive Mood is that form of 
the verb which is not limited to a subject, or which 
has no subject ; as, '* To write." 

English Grammar and Analysis, Hart, p. 58. 

Def. No. 2. The infinitive is a verbal noun, 
and expresses the action of the verb simply, without 
reference to any subject. "To play." 
Bingham's Grammar of the English Language, /. 61, 

§46. 

Def. No. 3. A verb used without limitation by 
a subject, is in the infinitive mode. 

Clark's Normal Grammar, p. 119, Def. 132. 

Def No. 4. The Infinitive Mood is the name 
of the action, unlimited (from Latin i7t^ not, and finis, 
a limit) by Number or Person. It is generally pre- 
ceded by the sign to, but not always ; as, I li'ke to sing ; 
we saw him run. The Infinitive is really a Noun. 
Progressive English Grammar, Swinton, p. 49, Art. 

164. 

Def iVo. 5. The Infinitive mode expresses the 
action, being, or state, without affirming it ; as, to 
write. 

English Grammar, Harvey, p. ^6, Art. 95. 

Def, No. 6. An Infinitive is a form of the verb 



118 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

that generally begins with to, and that expresses the 
act or state without predicating it. 

KerVs Co^nmon School Grammar, p. 1$!, Art. 4^1, 

Def. No. 7. The infinitive represents the ac- 
tion or state as an abstract noun. 

Greenes English Grammar, p. 94, Art. 89, Def. 9. 

Def. No. 8. The Infinitive Mood partakes of 
the nature of the verb and of that of the noun. 

Practical a?id Critical Grammar, Butler, p. 79. 

Def. No. 9. The Infinitive is a form of the verb 
which names the action or being in a general way, 
without asserting it of anything. 
Higher Lessons in English, Reed and Kellogg, p. 204. 

Def. No. 10. The Infinitive Mode is that form 
of the verb which is used to express an action, a be- 
ing, or a state, which is not limited to a subject. 

Fewsmith's Elementary Grammar, p. 73. 

Def. No. II. • The infinitive mood is used to ex- 
press an action not limited either by person or num- 
ber. 
Smithes English Grammar on the Productive System, 

p. 6S, Art. 479- 

Def. No. 12. Verbs have another substantive 
form besides that in ing. This form is usually pre- 
ceded by the preposition to, and is called the Infini- 
tive of the verb. 

Boltwood's English Grammar, p. 56, § 54. 

Def. No. 13. The Infinitive Mood expresses an 
action or state not limited to a subject. 

Quackenbos's English Grammar, p. 99, Art. 283. 

Def. No. 14. The Infinitive Mode is used to 
express an action or a state of being in a general and 
unlimited manner. 

Analytical Grammar, Pinneo, p. 64, Art. 153. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 119 

Def. No. 15. The Infinitive Mood is that form 
of the verb which expresses the being,, action, or pas- 
sion, in an unHmited manner, and without person or 
number. 

Goold Brown's Elementary Grammar^ p. 40. 

Def. No. 16. Participles and Infinitives are as- 
suming verbal words. They may be used as nouns, as 
adjectives and as adverbs. 
English Grammar y Lee and Had ley, p. 211. 

147. To is called the sign of the infinitive. 

Id., p. 212. 

148. After the active voice of the verbs bid, make, 
need, let, feel and dare ; after let in the passive, and 
after some other words, to is omitted. 

Id., p. 212. 

149. There are two infinitives ; the present and 
the perfect. 

KerVs Common School Grammar, p. \^\, Art. 472. 

150. The Present Infinitive denotes, simply the act 

or state. 

Id., p. I Si, Art. 473. 

151. The present infinitive consists of /^, combined 
with the simplest form of the verb ; or of to be, with 
a simple participle. Ex. — To write, to be writing, to 
be written. 

Id., p. 151, Art. 474. 

152. The Perfect Infinitive represents the act or 
state as completed at the time referred to. 

Id., p. 152, Art. 475. 

153. The perfect infinitive consists of to have, or 
to have been, combined with a single participle. 

Id., p. 1^2, Art. ^76. 

154. Infinitives and participles have the construc- 
tion of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 

Evglish Grammar, Holbrook, p. 129, Rule XX. 



120 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

155. 

Def. No. I. A Participle is a word derived from 
a verb, partaking of the properties of a verb and of 
an adjective or a noun. 

Harvefs Grammar ^ p. 70. 

Def. No. 2. Participles are verbal adjectives, 
which as verbs may require an object, and as adjec- 
tives may qualify nouns. 

Swinton's Grammar^ p. 50, Art. 168. 
Def. No. 3. A Participle is a word derived from 
a verb, retaining the signification of its verb, while it 
also performs the office of some other ''part of speech." 
Clark's Normal Grammar^ p. 122, Def. 133. 

Def No. 4. A participle is that form of the 
verb which partakes of the nature both of a verb and 
of an adjective. 

Harfs Grammar and Analysis, p. 62. 
Def No. 5. A participle is a word having the 
signification of a verb, but the construction of an ad- 
jective. 

Greene's English Grammar, p. g7, Art. 91. 
Def. No. 6. The participle is a verbal adjective, 
limiting a noun, or forming part of the predicate of a 
proposition. 

Bingham's English Grammar, p. 6^, § 47. 
Def. No. 7. A Participle is a form of the verb 
that expresses the act or state without predicating it, 
and generally resembles an adjective. 

KerVs Common School Grammar, p. 154, Art. 483. 
Def. No. 8. The Participle partakes of the na- 
ture of the verb and of that of the adjective. 

Butler s Grammar, p. 79. 
Def. No. 9. A Participle is a word derived from 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 121 

a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of 
an adjective or noun. 

Goold Brown's First Lines of English Grammar^ p. 63, 
Dcf. No. 10. A Participle is a form of the verb 
that generally qualifies or limits the meaning of a sub- 
stantive, by assuming some action or state in connection 
with it. 

Quackenbos' s English Grammar^ p. 102, art. 2gg. 
156. The participle is generally formed by adding 
ing, d, or ed, to the verb : thus, from the verb rule, are 
formed three participles, two simple and one compound; 
as, I. ruling, 2. ruled, 3. having ruled, 

Goold Browris First Lines, of English Gram. ^ p. 6j. 

157. 

Ans. No. I, There are three participles ; the 
present, the perfect, and the compound perfect. 

Quackenbos' s English Gram., p. 102, aft. ^00. 
Ans. No. 2. There are two participles ; the pres- 
ent and the perfect, each of which is either simple or 
compound. 

KerVs Common School Gram., p. i^/j.^ art. /f.8^. 
Ans. No. J. There are, properly, two participles, 
the present and the perfect. 

Greene's English Gram., p. p/, art. g2. 
Ans. No. /f. Participles are distinguished as 
( I. Present, 
< 2 Prior Present, 
(3. Past. 

Clark's Normal Gram., p. 122, def. 7J5. 
Ans, No. J. There are three participles: the 
present, the perfect, and the compound. 

HarvefsEng. Gram., p. jo, aft. 86. 
Ans. No. 6. There are two Participles — the 
Present or incomplete participle, as, walking, drawing ; 



122 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

and the Past, or complete participle, as, walked, drawn. 
Szvinton's Gram., p. 50, art. i6g. 

Ans. No. 7. English verbs have severally three 
participles; the First or Imperfect, the Second or Per- 
fect, and the Third or Preperfect. 

Goold Brozvn's Lines of Eng. Gram.., p, 64. 

Ans. No. 8. Transitive verbs have six partici- 
ples ; namely, three active and three passive. They are 
called, Present active, Past active, Perfect active, Present 
passive. Past passive, and Perfect passive. Intransitive 
verbs have only three participles ; namely. Present ac- 
tive. Past active, and Perfect active. 

Holbrookes Complete Eng. Gram., p. 7^, art, ^gy. 

158. A Simple Participle is a single word derived 
from its verb. 

Claj-k's Normal Gram., p. 122, def. ij^ 

159. A Compound Participle consists of a Simple 
Participle, with the Auxiliary Participles "having" or 
"being," or "having been." 

Id.., p. 122, def. 7J5. 

160. The participle may have the construction of a 
noun, adjective, or adverb, in addition to its verbal force, 
that of assuming action, being, or state of being. 

Holbjvok's Gram., p. 73, art. 507. 
I^i. Tense is that attribute of a verb by which it ex- 
presses distinctions of Time. 

Harfs Grammar and Analysis, p, j8. 

162. There are six Tenses, the Present, the Past, and 
the Future; the Present-Perfect, the Past-Perfect, and 
the Future-Perfect. 

Id., pp. sS-sp. 

163. The Present Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes simply present time. 

Id.,p.sg. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 123 

164. The Past Tense is that form of the verb which 
denotes simply past time. 

Id., p. 60. 

165. The Future Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes simply future time. 

Id,., p, 60. 

166. The Present- Perfect Tense is that form of the 
verb which denotes what is past and finished, but which 
is connected also with the present time. 

Id., p. 60, 

167. The Past-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes what was past and finished, before some 
other event which is also past. • 

Id., p. 60. 

168. The Future-Perfect Tense is that form of the 
verb which denotes a future time prior to some other 
time which is itself future. 

Id.., p. 60. 
169. 

Ans. No. I. The Prior Past Tense, the Past 
Tense, the Prior Present Tense, the Present Tense, the 
Prior Future Tense, the Future Tense. 

Clark's Normal Gram.., p. 126. 
Ans. No. 2. The Present, the Imperfect, the Per- 
fect, the Pluperfect, the First-future and the Second-fu- 
ture. 

Goold Brown's lines of Eng. Gram.., p. ^i. 
170. The Indicative mood has all the six tenses. 

FewsmitJis Eng. Gram., p. 75. 
171. 

Afis. No. I. The Subjunctive has two tenses: 
the present and the past 

Id,, p. 75. 



124 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK* 

Ans. No. 2. The Subjunctive Mode has three 
tenses : the present, past, and past-perfect. 

Harvefs Eng. Gram.^p, 80, art. 104. 
Ans. No. J. The Subjunctive Mode has six 
tenses, — the same as the indicative. 

Greene's English Gram7nar, p. loy, art. loj. 

172. The Potential Mode has four tenses: the pres- 
ent, the past, the present-perfect, and the past-perfect. 

EewsmitJi s Elementary Grammar, p. 75. 

173. The In^nitive Mode has two tenses; the pres- 
ent and the present-perfect. 

7^.,/. 75. 

174. The Imperative Mode has but one tense ; the 
present. 

7^.,/. 75. 

175. The forms cf the verb are its various changes 
to express the time and state of an act in the several 
modes and tenses. 

Greene's Eng, Gram., p. log, art, log. 

176. Transitive verbs may have four forms. 

Id., p. 109, art. 109. 

177. The common, the emphatic, the progressive 
and the passive. 

Id., p. 109. 

178. Intransitive verbs may have three forms. 

Id., p. no. 

179. The common, the emphatic, and the progres- 
sive. 

Id., p. no. 

180. The common (indefinite) form represents an act 
indefinitely, as a custom, or as completed, without refer- 
ence to its progress. 

Id., p. no. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 125 

i8i. Examples of the common form: — I love; I 
loved; I shall love; I have loved. 

Id., p. no. 

182. The emphatic form represents an act with em- 
phasis. 

/</.,/. no. 

183. Examples of the emphatic form — \ do zvrite; I 
did write. 

Id., p. no. 

184. The emphatic form is used in interrogative or 
negative sentences without emphasis. 

Id,yp, no, 

185. 

Ex. — Do you write? Did you write? I do wfite. 

Id., p. no. 
186. The Progressive form is used to denote action 
or state in progress. 

Harvey s English Gram., p. 82, 

187. 

Ex. — "I am wnting;'' "He had been singiftg." 

Id., p. 82. 

188. The progressive form may be used in all the 
modes and tenses. 

Id, p. 82. 

189. The progressive form is formed by prefixing the 
various modes and tenses of the neuter verb to be to the 
present participle of the principal verb. 

Id., p. 82. 

190. The Passive Form denotes the reception of an 
act by its subject; as, *T am struck.'' 

Id, p. 82. 

191. The passive form is used in all the modes and 
tenses. 

Id., p. 82. 



126 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

192. The passive form is formed by prefixing the 
various modes and tenses of the neuter verb to be\.o the 
perfect participle of the principal verb. 

Id., p. 82, art. 106, Rem. 5. 

193. The Ancient Form, or Solemn Style, is used in 
the Bible, in religious worship, and sometimes in poetry 
and burlesque ; as, "Thou art the man." 

Id., p. 82, art. 106, Rem. 6, 

194. The Interrogative and Negative Forms. 

Slaters Eng. Exercises, pp. p2-p6. 

195. The Interrogative Form is made by placing 
the Subject after the first Helping Verb ; as, Have you 
seen my book? 

Id., p. g2. 

196. The Present and Past Tenses are usually made 
from the Emphatic Form ; as, Do you hear the alarm ? 

Id., p. g2. 

197. The Negative Form of a verb is made by plac- 
ing not after the first helping verb ; as, He has not 
come. 

Id., p. p6. 

198. Compound Forms result from the formation of 
Interrogative and Negative and from Progressive and 
Passive Forms. 

Id., p. gg. Lesson LI. 

199. Verbs have three persons, — the first, the sec- 
ond, and the third; and two numbers, — the singular and 
the plural. These correspond to the person and the 
number of the subject. 

Bingham's English Gram., p. 6j, § 51. 

200. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all 
the forms of the verb. 

Reed and Kellogg s Grammar and Composition, p. 205, 
Lesson 132. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 127 

201. Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the 
forms of one number and person in all the modes and 
tenses. 

Id., p. 205. 

202. The Inflection of a verb is called its Conjuga- 
tion. 

Boltwood's Eng, Gram., p. 99, § 95. 

203. The Verb has two Conjugations, the weak and 
the strong. 

Id., p. 124, § 122. 

204. There are two methods of forming the past 
tense of verbs. Most verbs form it by adding d or ed 
to the theme ; as, 

Theme: move, live, form. 

Past Tense: move<^, live</, form^^. 

The Past Participle of all such verbs has the same 
form as the past tense. 

Such verbs are of the Weak or Regular conjuga- 
tion. 

Id., p. 102, § 99. 

205. Some verbs — mostly of one syllable, and all of 
Anglo-Saxon origin — form their past tense by changing 
the vowel sound of the theme, and form their Past Par- 
ticiple by adding n or en to the theme, or to the Past 
Tense; as, 

Theme: draw, grow, ride. 

Past Tense: drew, grew, rode. 

The past participle of such verbs generally ends 
in n or en. 

Such verbs are of the Strong or Irregular conju- 
gation. 

Id., p. 102, § gg. 

206. The theme of the verb is that form which ad- 
mits the preposition to before it ; as, to have, to see. 



128 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

This form is called the Infinitive, or unlimited form, and 
is generally a substantive. 

Id., p. g8, § p^. 

207. A word given as a model by which to inflect 
other words is called a Paradigm. 

Id., p. g8, § pj. 

208. To make a verb in Grammar, means to put it 
into any required form. 

Id., p. 118, § IIS. 

209. To tell where a verb is made is to name the 
tense, mode, form, voice, number, and person of the verb 
if these can be known by the verb itself If all these, 
facts cannot be known, name as many as possible. 

Id., p. 118, § 115. 
210. 

Ex. — Where is may be goi7tg va^idQ} In the pres- 
ent potential, progressive form, active voice. 

Id., p. 119. 

211. The present infinitive active without its sign to, 
is the Root ot the verb. 

Quackenbos' s English Grammar^ p. 130, mt. 375. 

212. The Principal Parts of a verb are: I. Present 
Indicative ; II. Past Indicative ; III. Past Participle. 

Swinton's Progressive Gram., p. 52, art. 178. 

213. These are called principal parts because from 
them all other forms of the verb are made. 

Holbrookes Complete Eng. Grain., p. 74, ait. 529. 

214. Adverbs are words used to limit the application 
of verbs, participles, infinitives, adjectives, adverbs, pre- 
positions and propositions. 

Lee and Hadlefs Eng. Gram., p. 244. 

215. Adverbs are classified according to the ideas 
they express, into those of : 

Manner ; as, well, beautifully, quickly. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 129 

Time ; as, now, to-day, to-morrow, soon. 
Place ; as, where, here, there, near. 
Cause ; as, why, therefore. 

Degree or Quality; as, very, exceedingly, terri- 
bly, much, less. 

Number ; as, once, twice. 
Order ; as, first, last, finally. 
Affirmation; as, truly, yes, certainly. 
Negation ; as, no, not, not at all. 
Doubt ; as, perhaps, possibly. 
Direction ; as, downward, inward, upward. 

/<3r.,//. 244-245. 

216. A modifying adverb is one which limits words 
or phrases without having any connecting power. 

Holbrookes Eng. Gram,^p. 92, art. 589. 

217. A conjunctive adverb is one which introduces 
a subordinate sentence and modifies its verb ; as, We 
will know the truth when he returns. 

Id., p. 92, art. 590. 

218. An adverb is equivalent to a prepositon and its 
object limited by the adjective from which the adverb 
conies, or by some other adjective of like meaning. 

Ex. — *'He acts wisely,** He acts in a wise man- 
ner, 

Bingha^fUs English Gram,, p. 87, § 64, T 2. 
219. 

1. Adverbs of manner are mostly derived from 
adjectives by adding ly : a.s, wise, wisely. 

2. Some adverbs are identical in form with the 
adjective : as, more beautiful. 

3. Some adverbs are formed from nouns : as, 
daily, houfly, 

Id.yp. 89, § 65, nos. 1-2-3. 



180 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

220. An Adverb shouldbe placed in close proximity 
to the word or the words that it modifies. 

Swinton's Progressive English Gram., p. 109, art. 2p8. 

221. Adverbs have no modifications, except that a 
few are compared after the manner of adjectives: as, 
soon, sooner, soonest. Some are compared irregularly; 
as, well, better, best. 

Goold Blown' s Lines of Eng. Gram., pp. 68-69. 

222. A Preposition is a word placed before a noun 
or pronoun to show its relation to some other word. 

Grammar and Analysis, Hart, p. 90. 

223. Prepositions are divided into three classes: 
Simple, Compound, and Complex. 

Elementary Grammar, Fewsmithyp. 97. 

224. A simple preposition is a preposition consist- 
ing of a single word. 

Holbrookes Complete English Grammaryp.g^yArt.6i2>, 
Note. 

225. Compound means compounded of two prepo- 
sitions; as, out of, from between, etc. 

Id., p. 94, Art. 618, Note. 

226. Complex refers to prepositions compounded 
of a preposition and some other part or parts of speech; 
as, on account of, to the extent of, etc. 

Id., p. 94, Art. 618, Note. 

227. A Conjunction is a word whose office it is to 
connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. 

English Grammar, Boltwood, pp. 87 and 88. 

228. Conjunctions are classified on two bases; first, 
as to rank; second, as to signification. 

Holbrookes English Grammar, p. 96, A rt. 629. 

229. As to rank, conjunctions are Coordinate and 
Subordinate. 

Id., p. 96, Art. 630. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 131 

230. Coordinate connectives are those which join 
similar or homogeneous elements. 

Greenes English Grammar, p. i54> ^^^- H3- 

231. Subordinate connectives are those which join 
dissimilar or heterogeneous elements. 

Id., p. 156, Art. 143- 

232. As to signification, conjunctions are Copula- 
tive and Disjunctive. 

Holbrookes English Grammar, p, g6, Art. 633. 

233. A Copulative conjunction simply connects the 
meaning of phrases or sentences; as, The moon shines 
and the wind blows. 

Id., p. 96, Art. 634. 

234. A Disjunctive conjunction connects words, 
phrases, or sentences, yet indicates alternative, adver- 
sative, or antithetic meaning; as. He will go or stay; 
The shop was burned, but the house was saved. 

Id., p. 90, Art. 635. 

235. An Interjection is a word that is uttered mere- 
ly to Indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the 
mind; as. Oh ! alas ! 

First Lines of English Grammar, Brown., /• 7^* 

236. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 
Greeners English Grammar, p. 164, Art. i^y. 

237. A sentence is a complete expression of thought 
by means of words. 

English Grammar, Boltwood, p. 146, § i53- 

238. The expression of a thought involves at least, 
three things: 

1. Some subject of thought. 

2. Some idea which is connected with the sub- 
ject. 

3. Some word which expresses the connection 
of the first and second ideas. 

Id., p. 146, § 153. 



132 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK- 

239. The subject is the name of the thing spoken 
of. 

SwintorHs Lmiguage Primer^ p. 84. 

240. The Predicate is the word or words used with 
the Subject in making the statement. 

Id., p. 84. 

241. Sentences are classified as to structure and as 
to the nature of the proposition. 

Holbrookes E^iglish Grammar, p. 140, Art. 997. 

242. Simple, complete, abridged, complex, princi- 
pal, compound, partial compound, subordinate, leading 
and coordinate. 

Id.fpp. 140 and 141, Arts, ggg, 1000, looi, 1002, 1003, 
1004, 1005, 1006, 1007, 1008. 

243. A simple sentence is one which contains but 
one subject and one finite verb; as, Life is short. 

English Grammar and Analysis, Hart^ p, 102. 

244. A Complex sentence is one which contains a 
simple sentence, with one or more clauses modifying 
either its subject or its verb; as, A life which is spent 
in doing good cannot be a failure. 

^ Id., p. 102. 

245. A Compound sentence is one which contains 
two or more sentences, whether simple or complex, 
connected by one or more conjunctions ; as. Life is 
short, but art is long. 

Id., p 102. 

246. A complete sentence is one whose verb is fin- 
ite, 

Holbrookes English Grammar, p. 140, Art. 1000. 

247. An Abridged sentence is one whose verb is in 
the infinitive or participial mode. 

Id,, p. 141, Art, lOOi. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 133 

248. As to the nature of the proposition sentences 
are declarative, imperative and interrogative. 

Id., pp. 141 and 142, Arts. 1009, loio, loii, 1012. 

249. A Declarative Sentence is one that declares 
something; as, "The wind blows." 

English Grammar, Quackenbos, p. 163, Art. 470. 

250. An Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a 
question; as, ''Does the wind blow ?" 

Id., p. 163, Art. 471. 

251. An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses 
a command, an exhortation, an entreaty, or permis- 
sion, and contains a verb in the imperative mood; as, 
"Let the wind blow." 

Id., pp. 163 a7td 164, Art. 474. 

252. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that ex- 
claims something; as, "How the wind blows!" 

Id., p. 164, Art. 477. 

253. The Elements of sentences are words, phrases, 
and clauses. 

KerVs Common School Grammar, p. 231, Art. 590. 

254. All sentences can be resolved into propositions 
or clauses. 

Id., p. 231, Art. 591. 

255. A Proposition is a subject combined with its 
predicate. 

Id., p. 229, Art. 582. 

256. Every proposition must have at least two 
principal parts; a subject-nominative and a predicate- 
verb. 

Id., p. 231, Art. 594. 

257. A Clause contains the elements of a sentence 
but does not make complete sense. 

English Grammar, Boltwood,p. 149, § 156. 

258. It is always used as a modifier. 

Id, p. 149, § 156. 



184 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

259. A Phrase is any number of related words in 
proper order, not forming a sentence or a clause. 

Id., p. I49»§ 156. 

260. A Modifier is a dependent word, phrase or 
clause, added to some other word or expression, to 
limit or vary the meaning. 

KerVs Common School Grammar, p. 233, Art. 605. 

261. Analysis in Grammar, is the separation of sen- 
tences into the parts which compose them. 

Elementary Grammar, Fewsmith, p. 104. 

262. Synthesis is the construction or formation of 

sentences from words. 

Id., p. 104. 

263. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words, 

phrases, or clauses necessary to complete the sense 

and construction of a sentence ; as, " He loves play 

better than (he loves) study." 

Id., p. 104. 

264. Parsing is verbal analysis ; the naming of the 
several parts of speech, with the relation which each 
word has in the sentence. 

English Grammar, Boltwood, p. 150, § 156. 

265. Prosody is that part of grammar which treats 
of the quantity of syllables, of feet, and the modes in 
which they are combined in verse. 

English Grammar, Quackenbos, p. 278, Art. 744. 

266. Verse is language so arranged in lines that syl- 
lables of a certain length may occur at certain inter- 
vals. 

Id., p. 278, Art, 745. 

267. Verse is the form in which poetry generally 
appears. Poetry is distinguished from prose not only 
by this form, but by its containing more figures, as 
well as peculiar words and expressions. 

Id., p. 278. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 185 

268. There are two kinds of verse, Rhyme, and 
Blank Verse. Id., p. 278, Art. 746. 

269. Rhyme is that kind of verse in which there 
is a correspondence of sound in the last syllables of 
two or more lines. Id., p. 278, Art. 747. 

270. Blank Verse is metrical language without 
rhyme. 

Id., p. 278, Art. 748. 

271. By the quantity of a syllable is meant the 
time required for its utterance. 

Id., p. 279, Art.TA(^. 

272. A Foot is two or more syllables, constituting 
a portion of a line. 

7^.,/. 279, ^r^. 753.* 

273. A figure in grammar, is an intentional devia- 
tion from the ordinary spelling, formation, construc- 
tion, or application of words. 

First Lines of English Grammar, Goold BrowUy p. 

113. 

274. There are figures of Orthography, figures of 
Etymology, figures of Syntax, and figures of Rheto- 
ric. 

Id., p. 113. 

275. A figure of Orthography is an intentional de- 
viation from the ordinary or true spelling of a word. 

Id.,p, 113. 

276. A figure of Etymology is an intentional devi- 
ation from the ordinary formation of a word. 

7^., /.1 13. 

277. A figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary construction of words. 

Id., p. 114. 

278. A figure of Rhetoric is an intentional devia- 
tion from the ordinary application of words. 

Id.yp. 115. 



QUESTIONS ON UNITED STATES HIS- 
TORY. 



1. What is history ? 

2. What are the divisions of history ? 

3. Define Ancient history. 

4. Define Modern history. 

5. What is Civil history ? 

6. What is Sacred history ? 
7- What is Profane history ? 

8. For what is Ancient history distinguished ? 

9. For what is Modern history distinguished ? 

10. What can be said of the first inhabitants of 
America ? 

11. What race of people followed the Mound 
Builders ? 

12. Why were they so named ? 

13. Describe the Indian. 

14. Who first suggested the idea of the rotundity 
of the earth ? Who confirmed it ? Who resolved 
to prove it ? 

15- What was the great and exciting problem of 
the fifteenth century? 

16. Who had excited the people of Europe about 
the Indies ? 

17. Why did Columbus wish to sail to India ? 

18. Give some account of Columbus's trials and his 
final success. 

136 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 137 

19. How many voyages did Columbus make, and 
what lands did he discover in each voyage ? 

20. What further can be said of Columbus ? 

21. Give an idea of the character of Columbus. 

22. Give an account of his burial. 

23. Why was this country called America ? 

24. How many and what nations took an active 
part in exploring North America ? 

25. Name the most important Spanish discoverers 
and explorers. 

26. Give an account of De Leon's discoveries. 

27. What did Balboa discover ? 

28. Who discovered Mexico ? 

29. Give an account of De Ayllon. 

30. What became of De Ayllon's effort to kidnap 
the natives ? 

31. What was the result of De Ayllon's second 
kidnapping expedition ? 

32. Give an account of Magellan's explorations. 

33. What of De Soto and his explorations ? 

34. Who was Melendez ? 

35. What was the real object of the expedition of 
Melendez ? 

36. Where did Melendez land and what did he 
do? 

37. What did Melendez next proceed to do ? 

38. Give a summary of Spanish explorations. 

39. Name the most important French discoverers. 

40. Give an account of the explorations ofVerraz- 
zani. 

41. What did James Cartier discover? 

, 42. Name the most important English discover- 
ers and explorers. 



188 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

43. Give an account of the discovery of the 
Cabots. 

44. This discovery was previous to what other 
important discoveries ? 

45. Give an account of the first attempt of the 
English to colonize America. 

46. What did Sir Walter Raleigh do ? 

47. Where was the first white child of English 
parents born in America ? 

48. What Was her name ? 

49. What did Raleigh call the lands he explored ? 

50. What did Gosnold explore ? 

51. Give an account of the Dutch explorations in 
America. 

52. In what year did he make these discoveries ? 

53. What was the Spanish claim in America ? 

54. Upon whose expedition was it based ? 

55. What was the French claim ? 

56. What was the English claim ? 

57. Upon what was the English claim based? 

58. How far westward did these claims extend ? 

59. By what right did Spain claim the Pacific 
Coast } 

60. What was the Dutch claim ? 

61. During what period in the world's history did 
these discoveries and explorations take place ? 

62. What were the only permanent settlements 
at the close of the sixteenth century ? 

63. Name five of the first permanent settlements 
made in the New World, at the beginning of the 
seventeenth century. 

64. What inducements led Europeans to come to 
America ? 

65. What important event transpired April 10, 
1606 ? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 189 

66. What was the London company ? 

6y. What territory was granted to this company? 

68. Of whom was the Plymouth company com- 
posed } 

69. What right was granted to this company ? 

70. What settlement did the London company 
make? 

71. What special importance is attached to this 
settlement ? 

72. What was the character of the Virginia Colo- 
nists ? 

y^. What was their success ? 

74. What distinguished man was among the first 
settlers ? 

75. What did John Smith do for the colony ? 

76. What great story is told of John Smith ? 

yy. When and where was the first legislative as- 
sembly ever held in America ? 

yS. When was slavery first introduced into the 
colonies ? 

79. When were the Navigation acts passed ? 

80. What was the purpose of these Acts ? 

81. Explain the system of these Acts ? 

82. What was the effect of these laws ? 

83. What took place in 1676 ? 

84. What was the cause of Bacon's Rebellion ? 

85. What happened during this rebellion ? 

86. Where was the first permanent New England 
settlement made ? 

87. How did the New England States get their 
name ? 

88. When and by whom was Connecticut settled ? 

89. Where did thev commence their first settle- 
ments ? 



UO THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK* 

90. By whom was Rhode Island settled ? 

91. By whom was the first settlement in New 
Hampshire made ? 

92. Who made the first settlement in Maine ? 

93. From what did the early colonies greatly suf- 
fer ? 

94. What conduct and outrages led to the attitude 
of the Indians towards the colonists? 

95. What missionary heroes worked among the 
Indians ? 

96. What may be said of the colonists with regard 
to education ? 

97. When was Harvard University founded? 

98. When and where was William and Mary Col- 
lege founded? 

99. When was Yale College founded? 

100. When was Dartmouth College founded? 

10 1. By whom was New York settled? 

102. Where did they commence their settlement? 

103. What took place in the year 1664? 

104. Name the Dutch governors of New York in 
the order of their reign. 

105. By whom was Delaware settled? 

106. Where did they commence their first settle- 
ment? 

107. What transpired in a few years after their set- 
tlement? 

108. By whom was Maryland settled? 

109. Why did they leave England? 

1 10. Where did they land? 

111. Give an account of the government of Lord 
Baltimore. 

112. To whom does the honor of having first estab- 
lished religious freedom in America belong? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 141 

113. By whom was Pennsylvania settled? 

1 14. When did they arrive in this country? 
.115. Where did they commence a settlement? 

116. What can be said of William Penn's behavior 
to the Indians? 

117. Explain what is meant by Mason and Dixon's 
line. 

118. By whom was North Carolina settled? 

119. Where did they commence a settlement? 

120. When was South Carolina settled? 

121. What was introduced into this country in the 
year 1700? 

122. When and by whom was Georgia settled? 

123. Why was it called Georgia? 

124. From what nation were the great mass of the 
settlers of the U. S. 

125. What other nations were represented? 

1 26. Where were these different nationalities found 
in the colonies? 

1 27. In what were the settlers of New England en- 
gaged? 

128. In what were the settlers of the Middle States 
engaged? 

129. In wha* were the settlers of Virginia and Mary- 
land engaged? 

130. In what were the settlers of Carolina and Geor- 
gia engaged? 

131. What was the most commercial colony? 

132. What was the most commercial town? 

133. Why had Virginia no large towns? 

134. How was trade carried on? 

135. What was used instead of currency? 

136. In what money were accounts kept? 

* 137' When was the Federal currency adopted? 



142 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

138. State something of the manners and customs of 
the early settlers. 

139. What religious beliefs existed in the colonies? 

140. Give an account of the religious persecutions. 

141. Under what dominion were the colonies.^ 

142. What kinds of Government were there? 

143. Describe the commercial corporation. 

144. Describe proprietary government. 

145. Give examples of proprietary government. 

146. Describe royal government. 

147. Give examples of royal government. 

148. Describe charter government. 

149. Describe voluntary association. 

150. Name two strange delusions in colonial history. 

151. When was the printing press introduced into 
America? 

152. Who was the first American editor? 

153. Who were the founders of American literature? 

154. What part had the pulpit to do in the educa- 
tion of the colonial times? 

155. When were post-offices first established in the 
colonies? 

156. What great men did the colonial times pro- 
duce? 

157. What was the population of the colonies at the 
close of the colonial period? 

158. Name the inter-colonial wars. 

159. What was the cause of King William's war? 

160. When did the war begin and when did it close? 

161. What was the cause of Queen Anne's war? 

162. Give the dates of this war. 

1^3. By what treaty was it ended? What was the 
result of the war? 

164. What was the cause of King George's War? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. UZ 

165. What was the principal event in America? 

166. Give the dates of this war. 

167. What was the result of this war? 

168. What was the cause of the French and Indian 
war? 

169. Between what nations was the war fought? 
iTo. What was this war called in Europe.^ 

171. Name the principal events of this war. 

172. Who were the principal commanders in this 
war? 

173. Give the dates of this war. 

174. What were the terms of the treaty ? 

175. What were the causes of the Revolutionary 
War? 

176. What were the Writs of Assistance? 

177. What was the Stamp Act ? 

178. When was the Boston Port Bill passed ? 

179. What was the Mutiny Act ? 

180. When and where was the first Colonial Con- 
gress held? 

181. When was the first Continental Congress 
held? 

182. Of what did it consist? 

183. What did this Congress do? 

184. Who were the officers of this Congress? 

185. What parties existed in America at the break- 
ing out of the Revolution? 

186. Give an account of the Second Continental 
Congress. 

187. For what is the 4th of July, 1776, memorable? 

188. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 

189. What famous foreigners assisted the Ameri- 
cans in t'he Revolution? 



144 THE NOKMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

190. When were '' The Stars and Stripes" adopted 
as the emblem of our nationaUty ? 

191. Give an account of the treason of Benedict 
Arnold. 

192. Name the most important battles of the Rev- 
olution, with dates, results and commanders. 

193. When was the treaty of peace concluded? 

194. What were the terms of the treaty? 

195. What important measure was adopted by 
Congress in 1777? 

196. What were the Defects in the Articles of Con- 
federation? 

197. When was the Constitution of the United 
States adopted.? 

198. What two political parties were in existence 
at this time? 

199. What were the principles of these two par- 
ties ? 

200. Who were the leaders of these parties? 

201. Name the different places where the Conti- 
nental Congress met. 

202. When did the first trouble arise in reference 
to slavery ? 

203. What did each section claim? 

204. What compromise was effected? 

205. Who exercised this power.? 

206. Who was chosen first president of the United 
States .? When and by whom ? 

207. Name the most important events of Washing- 
ton's administration. 

208. Give the history of the seats of our govern- 
ment. 

209. Give a .short history of the District of Col- 
umbia. 

210. Who was chosen President after Washington? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. U5 

211. What do you know about him ? 

212. Name the most important events of Adams's 
administration. 

213. Define the text of the Alien and Sedition 
Laws. 

214. Give an account of the Presidential election 
of 1800. 

215. What do you know of the character of Thom- 
as Jefferson? 

216. What were the important events of Jefferson's 
administration? 

217. Give an account of the election of James 
Madison. 

218. What were the principal events of Madison's 
administration? 

219. Give a brief account of the Indian War. 

220. What was the cause of the war in 18 12? 

221. What were the principal engagements of this 
war? 

222. When and where was the treaty of peace 
made? 

223. What is said of this treaty? 

224. Give an account of the next Presidential elec- 
tion. 

225. Name the important events of Monroe's ad- 
ministration. 

226. Define the Monroe doctrine. 

227. What was the Missouri Compromise? 

228. Give a sketch of the two great parties now 
in power. 

229. Who were the champions of these parties ? 

230. What was the result of the election of 1824? 

231. What were the events of John Quincy Ad- 
ams's administration.? 

232. What of the Presidential election of 1828.^ 
10 



149 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

233. What were the important events of Jackson's 
administration? 

234. What can you say of the Presidential election 

of 1836? 

235. What were the events of Van Buren's admin- 
istration? 

236. Who was elected President in 1840? 

237. What was the meaning of the election? 

238. Give an account of the death of President 
Harrison. 

239. Who then became President? 

240. Name the events of these administrations. 

241. What was the issue of the campaign of 1844? 

242. Who was elected President ? 

243. What was the cause of the war with Mexico ? 

244. Name four or five of the principal battles of 
this war. 

245. What is there remarkable about the battles of 
this war ? 

246. Who were the most noted commanders on 
both sides ? 

247. What treaty formally ended the Mexican 
War.? 

248. State the territory ceded by this treaty to the 
United States. 

249. What other events transpired during Polk's 
administration ? 

250. What was the Wilmot Proviso ? 

251. Who were candidates for the Presidency in 
the election of 1848? 

252. What were the principles of the Free-soilers ? 

253. Who was elected ? 

254. When did Taylor die ? 

255. Who then became President? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 147 

256. What were the events of this administration ? 

257. Give an account of the admittance of Califor- 
nia into the Union. 

258. What compromise measure passed Congress? 

259. What were the provisions of the Omnibus 
Bill ? 

260. What was the question at issue in the cam- 
paign of 1852 } 

261. Who were the candidates? 

262. Who was elected.-* 

263. What were the events of this administration? 

264. What was the Gadsden purchase .'' 

265. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Bill? 

266. What was this doctrine called ? 

267. What was the result of this bill ? 

268. When did it become a law ? 

269. What did it bring about ? 

270. What new party came into existence in 1853? 

271. What were the principles of this party ? 

272. What new party was 'organized out of the 
Freesoilers? 

273. What principle did the Democrats advocate? 

274. What candidates were put in the field? 

275. What were the events of Buchanan's adminis- 
tration ? 

276. What was the ''Dred Scott" decision ? 

277. Into how many parties were the people di- 
vided in i860, and who was elected president? 

278. What immediate effect did the election hav« 
in South Carolina? 

279. What other States followed the lead of South 
Carolina? 

280. Give a sketch of the formation of the new 
government. 



148 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK- 

281. What may be given as the causes of the Civil 
War? 

282. What was the policy of Abraham Lincohi? 

283. When and where was the first gun 01 the Re- 
bellion fired? 

284. What was remarkable about this contest ? 

285. When and where was the first blood shed? 

286. What can you say of the flags of the two na- 
tions? 

287. Name the states that formed the Southern 
Confederacy. 

288. Name some of the most important battles won 
by the Confederates. 

289. Name some of the most important battles won 
by the Federals. 

290. Name the hard fought battles in which neither 
army was successful. 

291. What virtually closed the Civil War? 

292. What occurred five days after Lee's surren- 
der? 

293. Who now became President? 

294. What political questions came up for consid- 
eration? 

295. What important events occurred during John- 
son's administration? 

296. What was the cost of the war? 

297. Who was the next President? 

298. Name the most important events of Grant's 
administration. 

299. Name the events of Grant's second adminis- 
tration. 

300. Who was elected President in 1876 ? 

301. Mention the events of Hayes's administration. 

MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

302. Name the Presidents who served two terms. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 149 

303. Name the Presidents who died in office. 

304. What administrations were troubled with 
wars ? 

305. What Presidents did the Federal party elect ? 

306. The Old Republican party? 

307. The Democratic party? 

308. The New Republican party.!* 

309. What Presidents were elected without oppo- 
sition } 

310. Name some of our most eminent inventors. 

311. Who was our most eminent literary, political 
and scientific writer.? 

312. Name our distinguished metaphysician. 

313. Our lexicographers. 

314. Name our mathematicians. 

315. Our naturalists. 
• 316. Our novelists. 

317. Our historians. 

318. Our poets. 

319. Our journalists. 

320. Our sculptors. 

321. Our painters. 

322. Our orators. 

323. What territory belonged to the United States 
when it began its existence as a nation ? 

324. What country was organized as the Northwest 
Territory ? 

225. What States have been carved out of this ter- 
ritory? 

326. What was the Southwest Territory f 

327. What States have been formed from it? 

328. Was Maine one of the thirteen origin aLStat«s? 

329. Wars Vermont.? 

330. Give the early history of Maine. 

331. Give the early history of Vermont. 



150 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

332. What States and Territories have been formed 
out of the Louisiana purchase? 

333. Give the early history of Florida. 

334. What region was long known as Oregon ? 

335. Upon what grounds did the United States 
claim it ^ 

336. Give the early history of Texas. 

337. By what name was Alaska formerly known? 

338. How did the United States acquire this terri- 
tory? 

339. From what comes the real glory of a nation? 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON UNITED 
STATES HISTORY. 



1. The word History is of Greek origin, signify- 
ing in that language a learning or knowing by inquiry, 
and in English a record of past events. 

Gilmans General Histoiy, p. I 

2. History is divided into Ancient and Modern; 
which is also divided into Civil, Sacred and Profane. 

A Catechism of the History of tJie U. S.y p. g. 

3. Ancient History is an account of all events 
that have taken place from the creation of the world 
to the birth of Christ. 

Id., p. 9. 

4. Modern History embraces an account of all 
events from the birth of Christ until the present time. 

Id., p. 9. 

5. Civil History is an account of the rise, contin- 
uance, and fall of empires, kingdoms, and states. 

Id., p. 9. 

6. Sacred History is that which is contained in 
the Sacred Scriptures. 

Id., p. 10. 

7. Profane History is properly the history of fab- 
ulous gods, and heroes of antiquity. 

Id., p. 10. 

8. Ancient Historyjis distinguished[for the rise and 

151 



162 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

fall of th^ four great empires: Assyria, Persia, Greece 
aad Rome. 

Id., p. lo. 
9. Modern History is distinguished for the inven- 
tion of gunpowder, the art of printing, and the dis- 
covery of America. 

Id.,p, 10. 

10. The first inhabitants of America are unknown. 
The name given them is Mound-Builders, owing to 
the great mounds and earth-works to be found in dif- 
ferent parts of the country, of which the Indians have 
no traditions. 

Taylor's U. S.H.,p. 18. 

11. The Indians. 

Id., p. 18. 

12. Columbus named them "Indians" because he 
thought the island he had found was a part of India, 
or Eastern Asia. 

Swinton's First Lessons in our Country's History, p, 
28. 

13. The Indian is tall, straight and well propor- 
tioned. His skin is of a copper brown; his hair long, 
black and coarse. They were uncivilized, had no writ- 
ten books, no well organized society, or arts, or man- 
ufactures, or agriculture. They lived mainly by hunt- 
ing and fishing, and cultivating patches of Indian corn, 
beans, potatoes and melons. Their great delight was 
in war and the chase. They lived in rude huts called 
wigwams, and their dress was the skin of wild beasts. 

The arts of the whites greatly injured them. The 
guns which they got from the whites only made them 
reckless in their destruction of game, and rendered 
their petty wars more frequent and more bloody. The 
rum of the white man turned them into brutes. 

The cottons and calicoes which they learned to 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 153 

use in place of their own furs and deer-skins, caused 
sickness and consumption. 

Id., pp. 29 and yd. 

14. Toscanelli, Sir John Mandeville, Christopher 
Columbus. 

Taylor's Brief History of the American People, pp. 
27 and 28. 

15. The great problem of the fifteenth century 
was to find a near route to India. 

Id., p. 27. 

16. Marco Polo, a Venetian, had traveled to 
the east, and returned with wonderful accounts of the 
riches of Cathay and the Islands of Cipango, called, 
generally, the East Indies, and now known to be China 
and Japan. 

Wi Hard's United States History, p. 22. 

17. Since the route at that time to this rich coun- 
try of spices, silks, pearls and gold was overland by 
caravans, dangerous and expensive, Columbus thought 
that it would be a great thing if he could go to India 
all the way by sea. Columbus was also a deeply re- 
ligious man, and he longed greatly to bring the un- 
known barbarous nations of the far East to a knowl- 
edge of the Christian faith. 

Swintons First Lessons in Our Country's History, p. 
4. 

18. Columbus being too poor to fit out an exped- 
ition himself, first applied to his own countrymen for 
aid, and then to the king of Portugal. He next turned 
to Spain, and in the meantime sent his brother to 
England, but these people had no time to listen to a 
poor sailor at whom everbody laughed, and the chil- 
dren mocked him as he passed in the streets. Suc- 
cess came at last. Eighteen years had now passed 
since he conceived his great design, seven of which 



154 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

were spent waiting for the answer of Ferdinand. Sad- 
dened by his continual failures, he was leaving Spain, 
begging a little food at convent doors, and resolving 
to apply to the king of France. At a lonely mountain 
pass he was overtaken by a messenger from the queen, 
Isabella, asking him to return to the capital. 

Urged by a desire to spread the Catholic faith 
throughout the world, and to see Spain the mistress of 
lands in Asia, the queen had changed her mind. To 
the cold objections of Ferdinand she nobly answered, 
"I undertake the enterprise for my crown of Castile, 
and will pledge my jewels to raise the necessary 
funds." 
Taylor's Brief History of the American People, p. 29. 

19. Four. In his first voyage Columbus discover- 
ed Guanahani, to which he gave the name of San Salva- 
dor — the Spanish words for Holy Savior. In his 
second voyage he discovered the Winward Isles, 
Jamaica and Porto Rico. In his third voyage he dis- 
covered the Island of Trinidad, and the mainland of 
South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco. In 
his fourth voyage he visited the places which he had 
previously discovered, and made some explorations 
along the south side of the Gulf of Mexico. 

Ridpath's School History, p. 17. 

20. Columbus never dreamed that he had discov- 
ered a new continent, and died supposing that he had 
opened the new route to Asia. His later years were 
saddened by persecution and neglect, and he died in 
poverty and obscurity, at Valladolid, Spain, May 20th, 
1506, in the seventy-first year of his age. 

Model School History, Taylor, p. 2il- 

21. Columbus was a man of commanding pres- 
ence. In character he was one of the greatest souls 
that ever lived. He was a man of lofty intellect, of 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 155 

wonderful enthusiasm, and of a deep religious nature. 
Sivinton's Condensed History of the U. S., p. 6. 

22. His remains were carried to Seville; afterwards 
they were removed to San Domingo, and in 1796 to 
the Cathedral at Havana, where they now rest. 

Id, p. 6. 

23. The country was called America from Ameri- 
cus Vespucius, who sailed to the New World on a voy- 
age of discovery after Columbus had reached the Con- 
tinent; Americus explored still farther, the new re- 
gions, and on his return to Spain published an account 
of his discovery and the country in consequence re- 
ceived from him the name of America. 

History of the U. S., Kerney, p. 14. 

24. The four powers which took an active part in 
exploring North America were Spain, England, France 
and Holland. 

Taylor's Model History, p. 32. 

25. Columbus, Vespucci, De Leon, Balboa, 
Grijalvah, De Ayllon, De Narvaez. Magellan, De Soto, 
and Melendez. 

History of the United States, Henry, pp. 24 and 25. 

26. Pojice de Leon (p6n'-tha-da-la-6n') was a gal- 
lant soldier, but an old man, and in disgrace. He cov- 
eted the glory of conquest to restore his tarnished re- 
putation, and, besides, he had heard of a magical foun- 
tain in this fairy land, where one might bathe and be 
young again. He accordingly equipped an expedi- 
tion, and sailed in search of this fabled treasure. On 
Easter Sunday {Pascua Florida, in Spanish), 15 12, he 
came in sight of a land gay with spring flowers. In 
honor of the day, he called it Florida. He sailed along 
the coast, and landed here and there, but returned 



156 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

home at last, an old man still, having found neither 
youth, gold, nor glory. 

Barnes's Brief History of the United States, pp. 26 
and 27. 

27. Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, Sept. 26, 
15 13, while ascending the mountains of the Isthmus of 
Panama. 

School History of the United States y Henry, p. 16. 

28. Mexico was discovered by Grijalvah, (gre-hauP- 
vah), in 15 18. 

Id.yp. 16. 

29. In 1520, Vasquez de Ayllon, (vas'-keth-da aP- 
yon), a wealthy Spaniard, undertook an expedition to 
America, and, landing on the present coast of South 
Carolina, decoyed a number of natives on board his 
fleet, and steered for home, intending to sell them in 
Europe as slaves. 

Id., p. 16. 

30. Three of the vessels were wrecked, and most 
of the Indians were drowned. 

Id., p. 18. 

31. De Ayllon was honorably received by his gov- 
ernment, and was sent on another kidnapping expedi- 
tion; but this was unsuccessful, resulting in De Ayl- 
lon's pecuniary ruin. Thus ended the first attempt to 
enslave the Indians, who, thenceforth, lost all confi- 
dence in Spanish honor. 

Id.,p, 18. 

32. Magellan was the first European to sail upon 
the Pacific, (15 19). On account of its calm and peace- 
ful appearance when first traversed, he gave it the 
name Pacific. He was also the first that sailed around 
the world, (15 19-21.) 

Id., p. 16. 



THE NOilMAL QUESTION BOOK. 157 

33. De Soto explored the interior of the Southern 
States, discovering the Mississippi River, 1541. 

Szvintoiis Condensed U. S. Histoiy, p. 23. 

34. In 1565, the king of Spain, — the bigoted Philip 
II., — sent Pedro Melendez (me-len'-deth), "a soldier of 
ferocious disposition and criminal practices," to colo- 
nize Florida. 

School History of the United States, Henry, pp. 18 and 
19. 

35. The real object of this expedition was to break 
up and destroy a colony of French Protestants, called 
Huguenots, who the year before, had made a settle- 
ment near the mouth of the St. John's River, territory 
claimed by Spain. 

Id., p. 19. 

36. Melendez with his men, landed on the north- 
eastern shore, near the mouth of a small river, on St. 
Augustine's day, (2d of September). Here he laid the 
foundation of the town of St. Augustine, (Sept., 
1565), — the oldest settlement, by forty-two years, 
within the United States. 

Id., p. 19. 

37. Melendez next turned his attention to the Hu- 
guenots, whom he found and attacked. The Hugue- 
nots put to sea in their vessels, but a furious storm 
arose and dashed to pieces every ship in the fleet 
Most of them, however, reached the shore. Here they 
were attacked by the forces of Melendez; and men, 
women and children were alike butchered, — only a few 
escaping. 

Id., p. 19. 

38. The Spaniards, having planted themselves on 
the great islands they first discovered, pushed out in 
different directions to the main-land. They soon over- 
ran Central America, Mexico, and Peru. Within the 



158 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

present limits of the United States they were also ac- 
tive : I. Florida, a vast and undefined region, was 
partially explored; 2. The Mississippi was discov- 
ered; 3. iW'ic' il/if^/V*? was explored; 4. St. Augus- 
tine and Santa Fe' were founded; 5. The coast of 
California was examined for many leagues. 
Smaller School History of the United States^ Harper^ 
p. 9. 

39. Verrazzani and C artier. 

Anderson s Grain. School United States, p. 18. 

40. Verrazzani {ya-rat-tsah' 7te), a Florentine, was 
sent out by the French king, in the year 1524, in com- 
mand of an exploring expedition. He first touched 
the coast at North Carolina, and explored as far north 
as Newfoundland. It is believed that he entered the 
harbors of New York and Newport. Verrazani's voy- 
age was the foundation of the French claim in Amer- 
ica. 

Harper s History of the U. S., p. 10. 

41. In 1534, James Cartier, (kar-te-ah'), sent out by 
the king of France, discovered and explored the Gulf 
and the River of St. Lawrence. 

School History of the United States, Henry, pp. 19 
and 20. 

42. The Cabots, Sir Francis Drake, Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert, Sir Walter Raleigh, Bartholomew Gosnold, 
Martin Pring and George Waymouth. 

Id., p. 25. 

43. The Cabots discovered Labrador, (1497); and 
Sebastian Cabot, in a second voyage, sailed along the 
coast from Labrador to Chesapeake Bay, (1498). 
Grammar School History of the U. S., Anderson, 

p. 18. 

44. This was one year before Columbus discovered 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 159 

South America, and two years before Vespucci visited 
the continent. 

School History of the United States, Henry ^ p. 21. 

45. The first attempt of the EngHsh to colonize 
America was made by the brave Sir Humphrey Gil- 
bert, who, under authority of Queen Elizabeth, en- 
deavored to establish a settlement at New Foundland, 
(1583). The enterprise was unsuccessful. 

Id., p. 2\. 

46. Raleigh sent an expedition to North Carolina 
(1584); and made two attempts to found a colony 
(1585, 1587). 

AndersofUs Grammar School History, p. 18. 

47. The first white child of EngHsh parents in 
America was born at the temporary settlement on the 
island of Roanoke, in 1587. 

Henry s School History of the U. S.y p. 21. 

48. Her name was Virginia Dare. 

Id., p. 21. 

49. Raleigh called the lands he explored, Virginia, 
in honor of Elizabeth, who was called the Virgin 
Queen. 

Id., p. 21. 

50. Gosnold explored the coast of Massachusetts 
(1602). 

Grammar School History, Anderson, p. 18. 

51. The Dutch made a single expedition under 
Henry Hudson, who discovered and explored the Hud- 
son River, and traversed the coast northward to Hud- 
son Bay. 

Model School History, Taylor, pp. 34 and 35. 

52. In 1609. 

Swinton's Condensed U. S. History, /. 19. 



160 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

53. The Spanish claim of Florida stretched north- 
ward without any definite limits. 

Harper s School Histoiy of the U. S., p. 17. 

54. It was chiefly based on the expedition of De 
Leon. 

Id., p. 17. 

55. The French claim, under the name of New 
France, extended from New York to Labrador, and 
was founded on the voyage of Verrazani. During 
the following century it was extended to the great 
lakes and the entire Mississippi Valley. 

Id., p. 1 7. 

56. The English claim of Virginia stretched from 
Florida as far as Labrador. 

Id., p. 17. 

57. It was based on the voyages of the Cabots. 

Id., p. 17. 

58. All these three nations claimed westward to 
the Pacific Ocean. 

Id., p. 17. 

59. Spain claimed the Pacific Coast by explora- 
tion. 

Id., p. 17. 

60. The Dutch claim, named New Netherland, in 
the year 16 14 was based on Hudson's discovery, and ex- 
tended from the 40th to the 45th degree north lati- 
tude. 

Id., pp. 17 and 18. 

61. These explorations had lasted during the fif- 
teenth and sixteenth centuries. 

Barnes's Brief History of the U. S., p. 40. 

62. At the close of the sixteenth century, the only 
permanent settlements were those of the Spaniards at 
St. Augustine and Santa Fe. 

Id.^ p. 40. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 161 

63. 

I. The French Sit Port Roj/a/,N. S., 1605. 

2. The English at Jamestown^ 1607. 

3. The French at Quebec^ 1608. 

4. The Dutch at New York, 161 3. 

5. The English Puritans at Plymouth, 1620. 

Id., p. 40. 

64. The principal inducements that first led Eu- 
ropeans to come to America were: the hope of finding 
a western passage to India; eagerness to amass sud- 
den fortunes by conquest or mining; curiosity and 
love of adventure; the prospect of profit from the New- 
foundland fisheries, and from trade in train-oil, wal- 
rus-tusks, bear-skins, and beaver-skins; zeal to con- 
vert heathen peoples to Christianity; and the design 
of planting colonies. 

Venables U?nted States History^ pp. 14 and 15. 

65. April ID, 1606, was an important day for the 
western continent. On that day the king of England 
issued two great patents to men of that country, au- 
thorizing them to possess and colonize most of that 
portion of North America lying between the thirty- 
fourth and forty-fifth degrees of latitude, and extend- 
ing from ocean to ocean. 

Model School History, Taylor, p. 39. 

d^. The London Company was an association com- 
posed of nobles, gentlemen, and merchants residing in 
London. 

Id., p. 40. 
67. To this company was granted the territory 
lying between the thirty-fourth and thirty-eighth de- 
grees — from Cape Fear to the Potomac. 

Id., p, 40. 



162 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

68. The Plymouth Company was composed of per- 
sons from Plymouth, in the west of England. 

Id., p. 40. 

69. It was granted the exclusive right to plant 
colonies between the forty-first and forty-fifth degrees 
— from New York City to Halifax. 

Id., p. 40. 

70. In May, 1607, a colony of one hundred and 
five persons, under the auspices of the London Com- 
pany, began the settlement of Jamestown, on the 
James River, in Virginia. 

Campbells Concise School History of the United 
States, /. 23. 

71. This was the frst permanent English settle- 
ment in America. 

Id., p. 23. 

72. They were mostly gentlemen by birth, un- 
used to labor. They had no families, and came out in 
search of wealth or adventure, expecting, when rich, to 
return to England. 

Brief History of the United States, Barnes, p. 46, 

73. The climate was unhealthy, and before the 
first autumn half of their number had perished. 

Id., p. 46. 

74. Captain John Smith. 

Id., p. 46. 

75. John Smith alone saved the colony from ruin. 
First as a member of the council, and afterward as 
president, his services were invaluable. He persuaded 
the settlers to erect a fort and build log huts for the 
winter. He made long voyages, carefully exploring 
Chesapeake Bay, securing the friendship of the Indians, 
and bringing back boat-loads of supplies. He trained the 
tender gentlemen till they learned how to swing the 
axe in the forest. He declared that **he who would not 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 163 

work, might not eat." He taught them that indus- 
try and self-reliance are the surest guarantees to for- 
tune. 

Id.^ pp. 46 and 47. 

76. A well-known story is related of Smith on one 
of his expeditions. He was captured by the Indians 
and carried before their chief, Powhatan, whose head- 
quarters were near the present site of Richmond. He 
was condemned to death, but was saved by Powhatan's 
daughter, Pocahontas. It is believed that this is a fic- 
tion; but there really was such an Indian girl as Poca- 
hontas, and, some years after, she married one of the 
colonists, named John Rolfe. 

Swintofis Condensed U. S. History ^ p. 32. 

77. In 1619 the first representative assembly ever 
convened in America was held at Jamestown. 

Id., p. 33. 
y^. Negro slaves were first brought to Virginia in 
a Dutch man-of-war, in 1620. They were soon after- 
ward introduced into all the other colonies. The price 
of a Negro in New Amsterdam ranged between $125 
and $150. 

Qtiackenbos's History of the U. S., p. 99. 

79. In 1660 the English Parliament passed certain 
laws called the Navigation Acts. 

SwintofUs Condensed U. S, History, p. 35. 

80. The purpose of these Acts was to give Eng- 
land the entire control of all the trade of the Colonies. 

Id., p. 35. 

81. The Virginians were not allowed to send their 
products anywhere but to England; they were not al- 
lowed to buy goods anywhere but in England; and 
everything had to be carried in English vessels. 

Id., pp. 35 and 16, 



164 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOR. 

82. These Jaws bore very heavily on Virginia. 
They produced great discontent, and were one of the 
causes of the Revolution. 

Id., p. 36. 

^l. In 1676, civil war broke out in Virginia. This 
war is known as ''Bacon's Rebellion." 

/-^r.,/. 36. 

84. The cause of it was ill-feeling which had arisen 
between the people and the aristocratic party in Vir- 
ginia. 

Id., p. 36. 

85. The country was laid waste, and Jamestown 
burned to the ground; but it was terminated by the 
death of Bacon. 

History of the U. S.y Kerney, p. 20. 
^6. At Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620, by the 
Pilgrims. 
Anderson's Grammar School History of the U. 5., /. 49. 

'^7. In 1614 this section of the country was visit- 
ed by the celebrated Captain Smith, who explored the 
coast, and on his return to Europe, made a map of the 
country and called it New England. 

History of the U, 5., Kerney, p. 20. 
Z^. In 1636, by a company of persons from Massa- 
chusetts, with their minister, Mr. Hooker. 

Id.^ p. 22. 

89. At Windsor, Hartford, and Weathersfield. 

Id.y p. 22. 

90. Rhode Island was settled in 1636, by Roger 
Williams, a clergyman, who was expelled from Massa- 
chusetts on account of his religious opinions. 

Id., p. 22. 

91. By the Rev. Mr. Wheelright, and a few follow- 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 165 

crs, who were also banished from Massachusetts on 
account of their rehgion. 

Id., p. 22. 

92. The first settlement in Maine was made by- 
Ferdinand Gorges in 1636. 

Id., p. 22. 

93. They suffered greatly from the hostihties ef 
the Indians. 

Id., p. 22. 

94. Columbus himself carried a considerable num- 
ber of the natives to Europe, where they were sold 
into slavery. 

Another explorer carried off fifty to the same 
fate. 

Another, having induced the confiding Indians 
to enter his ship, closed the hatchways, spread the 
sails and started for the West Indies. Another enticed 
the King of the Hurons on board his vessel, and car- 
ried the captive chief to France, where he died of 
loneliness and grief Their wrongs would make a long 
record of inhumanity. "The entire aboriginal popula- 
tion of the West Indies became extinct under the iron 
rule of the Spaniards." The practice of selling Indi- 
ans into bondage in Europe continued for nearly two 
centuries. The news of these and other wrongs 
spread from wigwam to wigwam, from tribe to tribe, 
till the tales of treachery and outrage reached the 
most distant nations of North America; and a general 
distrust of the whites, spread among the Indians, 
which led to three hundred years border warfare, and 
which was in no wise allayed by the conduct of the 
colonists themselves toward the savages. 
Model School History of the U. S., Taylor ^ pp, 64 and 

65. 



166 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

95. Rev. John Eliot v^ho was followed by John 
Sargent, David Brainard, David Zeisberger, James 
Marquette, Thomas Mayhew, and others. 

Id,^ p. 66. 

g6. They took deep interest in the affairs of edu- 
cation, and at an early period established schools and 
colleges for the education of their children. 

Catechism of U. S. History ^ Kerneyy p. 23. 
97. In the year 1638, at Cambridge. 

Id.y p. 24. 

98. In the year 1693, in Virginia. 

Id.y p. 24. 

99. In the year I/CXD, at Saybrook, in Connecticut. 

Id., p. 24. 

100. In the year 1769, at Hanover, New Hamp- 
shire. 

Id., p. 24. 

lOi. By a company of Dutch, in the year 1614. 

Id., p 24. 

102. They sailed up the Hudson River, and com- 
menced a settlement near the present city of Albany; 
they also commenced another settlement on Manhat- 
tan Island, where the city of New York now stands, 
and called it New Amsterdam. 

Id., p. 24. 

103. New Amsterdam was conquered by the Eng- 
lish, and called New York, in honor of the Duke of 
York, to whom it was granted. 

Id., p. 25. 

104. Peter Minuit, Wouter Van Twiller, Sir Wil- 
liam Kieft and Peter Stuyvesant. 

Swintons Condensed U. S. History, p. 58. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 167 

105. Delaware was settled by the Swedes and 
Finns, in 1630. 

Catechism of U. S. History, Kerney, /. 25. 

106. Near the entrance of the Delaware Bay, where 
they laid the foundation of Lewistown, the oldest town 
in the State. 

107. The Swedes and Finns were conquered, and 
their colony subdued by Stuyvesant, the Governor of 
New Netherlands. 

Id., p. 25. 

108. The settlement of Maryland was commenced 
in 1633, by a colony of Roman Catholics under Lord 
Baltimore, a native of England. 

7^.,/. 25. 

109. They left England because they were greatly 
persecuted on account of their religion. 

Id., p. 25. 

no. They landed on the shores of the Chesapeake 
Bay, and commenced a settlement at a village which 
they purchased from the Indians, and called St. 
Mary's. 

Id., p. 25. 

111. The government of Lord Baltimore was es- 
tablished on the most liberal principles. Civil and re- 
ligious liberty were proclaimed; no one WdS molested 
on account of his religion; and all were permitted to 
worship God according to the dictates of their own 
conscience. 

Id., p. 26. 

112. To the Roman Catholics of Maryland. 

Id., p, 26. 



168 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

113. By a company of Friends, or Quakers, under 
the celebrated William Penn. 

Id., p, 26. 

114. The first company arrived in the year 1681, 
but Penn himself did not arrive until about a year 
later, with another party. 

Id., p. 26. 

115. They purchased the land from the natives, and 
commenced a settlement on the Delaware river, where 
the city of Philadelphia now stands. 

Id., p. 26. 

116. Penn's behavior to the Indians was truly no- 
ble and Christian-like. Soon after his arrival he made 
his famous treaty with the Indians. Both parties 
lived up to this treaty; and as long- as the Quaker con- 
trol of the Colony lasted, which was seventy years, 
there was unbroken harmony between the whites and 
the red man. 

SwintorHs Condensed U. S. History, p. 67. 

117. The boundary between Pennsylvania and 
Maryland had caused much trouble for many years. 
It was finally settled in 1767, when two surveyors, 
Mason and Dixon, fixed the present boundary. The 
boundary was afterwards known as " Mason and Dix- 
on's line." 

Id., p. 69, Art. 206. 

118. In the year 1650, by a colony from Virginia. 

Catechism of U. S. History, Kerney, p. 27. 

119. Near Albemarle Sound. 

Id., p. 27. 

120. In the year 1689, where Charleston now 
stands. Id., p. 27. 

121. In the year 1700 the cultivation of cotton and 
rice was introduced. Id,,p,2y. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 169 

122. In the year 1732, by Mr. Oglethorpe, who 
commenced a settlement where the city of Savannah 
now stands. 

Id,, p. 27. 

123. It was called in honor of George the Second, 
at that time King of England. 

Id,, p. 27. 

124. In the year 1750 the great body of the inhab- 
itants in the colonies were either English or their de- 
scendants. 

Harper's School History of the U. S., p. 54. 

125. The Dutch, French, Scotch, Irish, Swedes and 
Germans. 

Id., p. 54. 

126. The Dutch were numerous in New York; the 
French were found in New York and South Carolina; 
the Scotch and Irish, in East Jersey, the Carolinas, and 
Georgia; the Swedes, on the Delaware; the Germans, 
in Pennsylvania and North Carolina. 

Id, p. 54. 

127. In New England the inhabitants were occu- 
pied in farming, lumbering, manufacturing, ship-build- 
ing, and the fisheries. 

Id., p. 54. 

128. In the Middle States they were chiefly farm- 
ers. 

Id., p. S4- 

129. In Virginia and Maryland the principal staple 
was tobacco, and farming was the main business. 

Id, p. 54. 

130. In Carolina and Georgia were the rice planta- 
tions, near the coast; on the high lands the settlers 
were farmers. Cotton was not yet cultivated to any 
extent. 

Id., pp. S4 and SS- 



170 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

131. The most commercial colony was Massachu- 
setts. 

132. Boston, from the first, was the most active of 
all the towns in shipping. 

7^.,/. 55. 

133. If we examine a map of Virginia, we may no- 
tice how many large rivers run into Chesapeake Bay. 
Up these the ships went to the plantations, and took 
away the produce of the planters, leaving other things 
in exchange. This is the reason why the colonists of 
Virginia did not collect in large towns. 

7^.,/. 55. 

134. The trade of the colonies was, in early times, 
mainly carried on by exchange or barter. 

Id., p. 55. 

135. In Virginia, for a long time, tobacco was used 
as money; in New England, wampum, made of shells ; 
in New York, beaver-skins. 

Id., p. 55. 

136. The currency was English-pounds, shillings, 
and pence. 

Id.,p.SS. 

137. Dollars and cents came in with the Revolu- 
tion. 

7^.,/. 55. 

138. The mode of life was exceedingly simple. 
The people wore home-spun clothes, and made their 
yarn from the wool of their own sheep. All persons 
were required by law to dress within their means. 
The roads were poor and wheeled vehicles were scarce. 
The food was simple but abundant. The houses were 
mostly log cabins, with small windows, and chimneys 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 171 

made of Sticks and clay plaster. The furniture was 
generally very simple and plain. 

Model School History, Taylor, pp. 72 and 73. 

139. The religious belief of the colonists differed 
greatly, though nearly the entire population professed 
Christianity. Maryland, founded by CathoHcs, soon 
had, like the other colonies, a majority of Protestants. 
The Church of England^the Episcopal, — prevailed in 
Virginia and South Carolina. In New England, the 
people were largely Calvinistic in doctrine and Con- 
gregational in practice. In New York, the Dutch Re- 
formed were supreme. 

The Quaker element predominated in Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware, Rhode Island and New Jersey. Roger 
WilUams established at Providence the first Baptist 
Church in America. The French Protestants — the 
Huguenots, — were found in considerable numbers in 
New York and Carolina. 

Id., pp. 73 and 74. 

140. A war of sects was waged in several of the 
colonies. The people forgot their ideas of tolerance 
and religious equality when power came to them. 
"New England Protestants appealed to Liberty ; then 
they closed the door against her." It was a sad, 
strange picture of life. The Puritans imprisoned 
Baptists and executed Quakers. The Churchmen in 
Virginia banished Puritans and imprisoned Baptists. 
The Protestants in Maryland disfranchised the Cath- 
olics. But as years passed away, a more kind, toler- 
ant spirit prevailed; and long before the end of the 
colonial period the iUiberal sentiment of persecution 
had passed away. 

Id., p. 74. 



172 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

141. The Thirteen Colonies, each and all, from the 
time of their founding down to the Declaration of In- 
dependence in 1776, were under the dominion of the 
crown of England. 

Swintons Condensed U. S. History, p. 84. 

142. There were several different kinds of govern- 
ment in the Colonies, and various Colonies from 
time to time, changed their government. The kinds 
of government were : Commercial Corporation, Pro- 
prietary, Royal, Chart^^r, and Voluntary Association. 

Id., p. 84. 

143. The government of a commercial corporation, 
as the London Company, which ruled over Virginia 
in early times. 

Id., p. 84. 

144. Proprietary government, the rule being under 
some proprietor or proprietary to whom the king 
granted the Province. 

Id., p. 84. 

145. Pennsylvania under William Penn, and Mary- 
land under Lord Baltimore, are examples of proprietary 
government. 

Id., p. 84. 

146. Royal government, or the government of the 
King of England through some royal governor ap- 
pointed by the crown. 

Id., p. 84. 

147. Almost all the Colonies were, sooner, or later, 
under royal government. 

Id., p. 84. 

148. Charter government was the government of 
the colonies by a charter or written instrument, given 
by the king, and granting certain poHtical rights and 
privileges. Id., p.Z\. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 173 

149. There were some colonies founded by the 
people themselves, without the authority of king or 
company or proprietor. This kind of government may 
be called government by voluntary association. 

Id,, p. 84. 

150. The Salem Witchcraft and the Negro Plot of 
New York. 

Model School History, pp. 49 and 52. 

151. In the year 1639, an English printer named 
Stephen Day, set up at Cambridge the first printing 
press. The first newspaper appeared in 1704, and was 
called the Boston News Letter. 

Id., p. %Z, 

152. John Campbell was the first American editor. 

Id., p. %%. 

153. Increase Mather, one of the early presidents of 
Harvard C oUege, and his son, C otton Mather. C otton 
Mather's Magnalia, a religious history of New Eng- 
land, was the first important book written by a native 
of this country. 

Id., p. 90. 

154. The pulpit was a great educator of the times. 
Many of the ministers were men of superior scholar- 
ship, who preached their long, strong sermons to con- 
gregations of farmers, mechanics, and small trades- 
people of the district. In many a parsonage the 
Scriptures were read in the original languages at the 
morning and evening worship. For two-thirds of a 
century metaphysical theology had held the ascenden- 
cy in the ministry; but the clergy did not stop with 
the discussion of dogmas ; they led and inspired the 
people; they kept patriotism aflame; they promoted 
vital religion; they moulded national character. 

Id., p. 89. 



174 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

155. In the year 1693, Parliament voted to estab- 
lish post-offices in the colonies, and Thomas Neale 
was authorized to transmit letters and packets "at 
such rates as the planters should agree to give." 

7^.,/. 85. 
Ijr6. Jonathan Edwards, the theologian; Benjamin 
Franklin, the philosopher and statesman; James Otis 
and Patrick Henry, the great orators. 

Id.^ pp. 94 and 95. 

157. Nearly 3,000,000. 

SwintorCs U. S. History^ p. 90. 

158. I. King William's War ; II. Queen Anne's 
War ; III. King George's War ; IV. French and 
Indian War. 

Henry s School History of the United States, pp. 43, 
44 and ^^. 

159. King WiUiam's War was a contest between 
France and England. When James II. was forced to 
abdicate thethrone, he fled to France. The king of 
that country lent him an army to assist him in his at- 
tempts to regain the throne. This led to a war be- 
tween the two countries, which extended to their colo- 
nies in America. 

Id., pp. 43 and 4^. 

160. The war began in 1689, and closed in 1697 by 
the treaty of Ryswick. 

Id., p. 44. 

161. England, Holland and Germany formed an 
alliance against France in 1701, to prevent the union 
of France and Spain. The war which followed is 
known in English history by the name of ''the war of 
the Spanish Succession." In this country it was call- 
ed "Queen Anne's War." 

Id., p. 44. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 175 

162. It began in 1702 and continued till 1713 — 
eleven years. Id.y p. 44. 

163. It was ended by the treaty of Utrecht. Aca- 
dia was ceded to England. 

Barnes's Brief History of the United States^ p. 80. 

164. Disputes arose in Europe about the succession 
to the Austrian throne, and France and England took 
opposite sides. 

Harper's United States History^ p- 17- 

165. The principal event in America was the cap- 
ture of the strong French fortress of Louisburg, on 
Cape Breton Island. Id.^ p, 38. 

166. The war began in 1744 and ended in 1748 by 
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in Prussia. 

Id., p. 38. 

167. Louisburg, the capture of which had cost the 
colonies so much effort, was restored to France. 

Id., p. 38. 

168. Jealousy and envy on account of their respec- 
tive possessions in America were the chief causes of 
the war. 

Henrys School History of the U. S., p. 45. 

169. Between England and her colonies, with a few 
Indians, on the one side, and France and her colonies, 
largely aided by the Indians, on the other. 

Andersons Grammar School, U. S. History, p. 54. 

170. The Seven Years War. 

CampbelVs School History of the U. S., p. 61. 

171. Washington's journey across the Alleghanies, 
Battle of the Great Meadows, Braddock's Defeat, Cap- 
ture of Louisburg, Battle of Lake George, Capture of 
Crown Point and Ticonderoga, Capture of Niagara and 
Quebec. 

Henry's School History of the U. S., pp. 46, 47 and \Z, 



176 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

172. English, Braddock, Amherst, Wolfe, Aber- 
crombie and Washington; French, Dieskau and Mont- 
calm. 

Id., pp. 46, 47 and 48. 

173. This war broke out in 1754, and closed by the 
treaty of Paris, 1763. 

Id., pp. 45 and \^. 

174. France ceded to Great Britain all her Ameri- 
can possessions east of the Mississippi, and north of 
the Iberville River, in Louisiana. At the same time 
Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain. 

Anderson's United States History, p. 63. 

175. The isolated position of America, the ten- 
dency of her governments and anti-monarchial in- 
stitutions, the prevailing customs and opinions of 
her self-reliant people, inevitably destined her for a 
separate national existence. Causes less natural 
hastened severance from the mother country. Among 
these causes were unjust legislation in England, and 
despotic administration of British officials in the col- 
onies. 

United States History, Venable, /. 90, Art, 112. 

176. Writs of Assistance were granted, empower- 
ing the holder to invade any one's premises and search 
for contraband goods. 

7^.,/. 91. 

177. The "Stamp Act," passed in 1765, requiring a 
heavy duty to be paid upon all legal documents, news- 
papers, pamphlets, &c. 

Henry s School History of the U. S., p. 54- 

178. The " Boston Port Bill" passed in 1774, effect- 
ually destroying the business of New England mer- 
chants. 

Id., p. 54. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 177 

179. The " Mutiny Act," passed in 1774, requiring 
the colonists to provide quarters and supph'es for 
British troops stationed among them. 

Id., p, 54. 

180. The Colonial Congress met in October, 1765, 
at New York, and agreed on a "Declaration of Rights 
and Grievances of the Colonies." A petition to the 
king, and memorials to both houses of Parliament, 
were also prepared and adopted. 

Harper's School History of the U. S., p. 81. 

181. The First Continental Congress was held at 
Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. 

Henrys School History of the U. S., p. 56. 

182. It consisted of talented and influential men 
from all the C olonies, except Georgia. 

Id., p. 56. 

183. It issued a protest against standing armies 
being kept in the Colonies without consent of the 
people, and agreed to hold no intercourse with Great 
Britain. 

Id., p. S6. 

184. Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, was chosen 
president, and Charles Thomson, of Pennsylvania, 
secretary. 

Harper's School History of the U. S., p. 84. 

185. Two parties had arisen, Whigs and Tories, the 
latter friends to Parliament and the King. 

United States History, Venable, p. 97. 

186. May lOth, 1775, the second Continental Con- 
gress convened at Philadelphia. That body decided 
to raise an army of twenty thousand men; and, on the 
15th of June, by a unanimous vote, elected George 
Washington commander-in-chief of "the forces raised 
or to be raised in defence of American liberties." 

Anderson's United States History, p. Ji. 
12 



178 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

187. On the 4th of July, 1776, Congress passed the 
famous Declaration of Independence from Great Brit- 
ain forever. 

Hai'pers School History^ p. 94. 

188. The great man who wrote this Declaration 
was Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, assisted by Benja- 
min FrankUn, of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman, of 
Connecticut, Robert R. Livingston, of New York, and 
John Adams, of Massachusetts. 

Id., p. 94. 

189. Through the commissionership of Franklin, 
secret aid in the form of loans and war stores was 
obtained from France. A number of foreign patriots 
volunteered their services to aid the cause of Ameri- 
can independence. Among those that, during the war, 
rendered valuable services as officers were the German 
barons John De Kalb and Frederick Steuben, the Poles 
Thaddeus Kosciusko and Count Casimir Pulaski, and 
especially the French Marquis de La Fayette. 

V enable s United States History^ p. 105. 

190. " The Stars and Stripes " — the prettiest flag in 
the world — was adopted as the emblem of our nation- 
ality, June 14th, 1777. The 13 stripes, 7 red and 6 
white, alternating, represent the Thirteen Original 
States, and an additional star is placed upon it for 
every new State. Thirty-eight stars now spangle its 
blue fold. 

Henry s School History of the U. S., p. 63. 

191. In September, 1780, the treason of Benedict 
Arnold was discovered. This man, an unsuccessful 
horse-dealer in Connecticut, had entered the army at 
the beginning of the war, and had gained much credit 
on the expedition to Quebec in 1775. He was now 
discontented, and offered to betray West Point, of 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 179 

which, by a display of patriotism, he had gained com- 
mand. Major John Andre, who was the agent of com- 
munication between General Clinton and Arnold, was 
captured and the plan exposed. Arnold escaped to 
England, but Andre was hung as a spy at Tappan, N. 
Y., October 2d. 

Gilman's Genera! History, p. ^4y. 
192. I. Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775; Am's 
victorious. Maj. Pitcarn commanded Br.; Am's had 
no commander. 2. Capture of Ticonderoga by Am's, 
May 10, 1775. Alien and Arnold commanded Ams.; 
Delaplace, the Br. 3. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 
1775; Am's defeated. Col. Prescott commanded Am's; 
Gen. Howe, the Br. 4. Attack on Quebec, Dec. 31, 
1775; Am's defeated. Montgomery and Arnold com- 
manded Am's; Carleton, the Br. 5. Evacuation of 
Boston by the British, March 17, 1776. Washington 
commanded Am's; Gen. Howe the Br. 6. Battle of 
Long Island, Aug. 27, 1776; Am's defeated. Wash- 
ington commanded Am's; Gens. Howe and Clinton, 
the Br. 7. Battle of White Plains, Oct. 28, 1776; 
Am's defeated. Washington commanded Am's; 
Gen. Howe, the Br. 8. Battle of Trenton, Dec'r 
25, 1776; Am's victorious. Washington commanded 
Am's; Col. Rahl, the Hessians. 9. Battle of Prince- 
ton, Jan'y 3, 1777; Am's victorious. Washington 
commanded Am's; CornwaUis, the Br. 10. Battle 
of Bennington, Aug. 10, 1777; Am's victorious. Gen. 
Stark commanded Am's; Col. Baum, the Br. 11. Bat- 
tle of the Brandywine, Sept., 1777; Am's de- 
feated. Washington commanded Am's; CornwaUis 
and Clinton, the Br. 12. Battle of Germantown, Oct. 
4, I777J Am's defeated. Washington commanded 
Am's; Gen. Howe the Br. 13. First Battle of Sara- 
toga, Sept. 19, 1777; Am's victorious. Gen. Gates 



180 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

commanded Am's; Gen. Burgoyne, the Br. 14. Sec- 
ond Battle of Saratoga, Oct. 7, 1777; Am's victorious. 
Gen. Gates commanded Am's; Gen. Burgoyne, the Br. 
15. Battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778; neither army 
victorious. Washington commanded Am's; Gen. Clin- 
ton, the Br. 16. Massacre of Wyoming, July 3, I77S» 
by Tories and Indians. Butler and Brandt conducted 
the slaughter. 17. Massacre at Cherry Valley, Nov. 
17, 1778, by Tories and Indians. Butler and Brandt 
conducted the slaughter. 18. Capture of Stony 
Point, July 25, 1779, by the Am's. Gen. Wayne com- 
manded Am's; Col. Johnson, the Br. 19. Attack on 
Savannah, Sept., 1779; Americans repulsed. Lincoln 
and D'Estaing commanded Am's andFr.; Prevost, the 
Br. 20. Paul Jones's Naval Battle, Sept. 23, 1779; 
Am's victorious. Paul Jones commanded Am's; Pear- 
son, the Br. 21. Capture of Charleston, May 12, 
1780, by the Br. Gen. Lincoln commanded Am's; 
Gen. Cornwatlis, the Br. 22. Battle of Camden, May 
12, 1780; Am's defeated. Gen. Gates commanded 
Am's; Cornwallis, the Br. 23. Battle of King's Moun- 
tain, Oct. 7th, 1780; Am's victorious. Campbell and 
Shelby commanded Am's; Maj. Ferguson, the Br. 24. 
Battle of the Cowpens, Jan. 17, 1781; Am's victorious. 
Gen. Morgan commanded Am's; Col. Tarleton, the 
Br. 25. Battle of Eutaw Springs, Sept. 8, i78i; Am's 
victorious. Gen. Greene commanded Am's; Cornwal- 
lis, the Br. 26. Siege of Yorktown. Surrender of 
Cornwallis, Oct. 19, 1781. Washington commanded 
Am's; Cornwallis, the Br. 

School History of the United States y Henry, pp. 73, 74 

and y^. 

193. On the 30th of November, 1782, a preliminary 

treaty was signed at Paris by commissioners from the 

two governments, those from the United States being 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 181 

John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and Henry 
Laurens. On the 19th of April, 1783, a cessation of 
hostilities was proclaimed in the American army; and 
on the third of September following, a definite treaty 
was signed at Paris. 
Anderson! s United States History^ p. 98, Art. 116. 

194. By the terms of the treaty, Great Britain 
acknowledged the independence of the United States, 
and the boundaries were fixed at the great lakes on 
the north and the Mississippi on the west. She also 
conceded the right to fish on the Banks of Newfound- 
land. Florida was returned to Spain. 

Id., p. 98, Art. 117. 

195. The Articles of Confederation. 

Harper's School History of the U. S., p. 118. 

196. I. Congress could ascertain the sum neces- 
sary to defray the expense of the public service, but it 
could not collect a dollar. It could contract debts, 
but it could not raise money. Some of the States 
made the desired levy, some delayed, and others refused. 
2. There was no power to regulate commerce, either 
foreign or domestic. State taxation of goods brought 
in from adjoining States, was very common, and pro- 
duced endless disputes and bitterness. 3. Nearly all 
the powers of Congress were merely advisory. It 
could declare anything, but it could do nothing. 

Model School History y Taylor^ p. 134, Art. 73. 

197. It was adopted September 17th, 1787, by a 
convention at Philadelphia, which was called to revise 
the Articles of C onfederation. 

School History of the United States^ Henry ^ p. 72. 

198. In some sections the new constitution met with 
the most determined opposition. Two political parties 
came into existence — the Federalists and Anti-Feder- 
alists, or Republicans. Id., p. 72. 



182 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

199. The former favored the Constitution, and ad- 
vocated a centralized government; the latter advo- 
cated the doctrine of state sovereignty, and opposed a 
central government. 

Id., p. 72. 

200. The leaders of the Federal party were Alex- 
ander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay. Thos. 
Jefferson was the great head of the Anti-Federal, or 
Republican party. 

Id., p. 72. 

201. Philadelphia, 1774-76; Baltimore, 1776; Phila- 
delphia, i;*77 : Lancaster and York, 1777 ; Philadel- 
phia, 1778-83 ; Princeton, 1783 ; Annapolis, 1783 ; 
Trenton, 1784; New York, 1785-89 ; 

Swinton^s United States History, p. 160. 

202. The first slavery trouble arose in the conven- 
tion that adopted the Constitution of the United 
States. Violent disputes arose between the two sec- 
tions concerning the ratio of representation. 

Model School History, Taylor, p, 135. 

203. The northern members claimed that slaves 
should not be counted in representation and taxation; 
the southern, that they should. 

Id., pp. 135 and 136. 

204. A compromise was effected by which ever after- 
ward during the existence of slavery in the country, 
five slaves were equal in poHtical power to three white 
men. 

Id., p. 136. 

205. This power was exercised by the masters, and 
not by the slaves; and thus, in several States of the 
South a white man had twice as much political power 
as a white man in the North. 

Id., p. 136. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 183 

206. George Washington. 1789. By the whole 
people. 

Id., p. 138. 

207. Appointment of the Cabinet, United States 
Bank chartered, Capital of the U. S. changed, Ver- 
mont, Kentucky and Tennessee admitted into the 
Union, Indian War in Ohio, Death of Franklin. Events 
of Washington's Second Administration— Genet re- 
called by France, the Whisky Rebellion, Treaty with 
England. 

Harpers United States History, pp. 122, 123, and 124. 
20S. New York City was the first seat of our Gov- 
ernment; thence it was transferred to Philadelphia; and 
in 1800 it was removed to Washington City, in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia. 

Henry s School History of the U. S., p. 82. 

209. The District of Columbia was formerly ten 
rniles square, given to the United States in i790> by 
Maryland and Virginia, for the purposes of a National 
Capital. Im 1800 it became the seat of the General 
Government, and the residence of the President and 
the other chief executive officers of the nation. In 
1846 by an act of Congress, the part given by Vir- 
ginia was restored to that State. Consequently the 
District is now confined to the Maryland side of the 
Potomac, and contains about 70 square miles. 

Id., p. 82. 

210. In the fall of 1796, John Adams, the nomi- 
nee of the Federalists, was elected over his opponent, 
Thomas Jefferson. 

V enable' s United States History, pp. 141 and 142. 

211. Adams was a .native of Massachusetts. He 
was an able lawyer and a good writer. 

Id., p. 142. 



184 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

212. Troubles with France, Death of Washington, 
Dec. 14, 1799, Death of Patrick Henry, Removal of 
National Capital from Philadelphia to Washington 
City, Passing of the AHen and Sedition Laws. 

Id.^ pp. 142 and 143. 

213. *'Owing to the violent denunciations of the Gov- 
ernment by the friends and emissaries of France, the 
alien and sedition laws were passed. Under the former, 
the President could expel from the country any foreign- 
er whom he deemed injurious to the United States; un- 
der the latter, any one libelling Congress, the President 
or the Government, could be fined or imprisoned. This 
was a most unpopular measure, and excited the bitter- 
est feeling." 

Henry's School History of the U. S., p. 8j, 

214. The quarrel between the two great political 
parties — the Federalists and Republicans — grew more 
and more bitter as the presidential election approached. 
Adams was re-nominated by the former ; Jefferson was 
the candidate of the latter. The Republicans triumphed. 
Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, was chosen President, 
and Aaron Burr, of New York, Vice-President. 

Harper's School History^ p. 125, 

215. Thomas Jefferson was a ripe scholar, a bold re- 
former, the founder of the Republican party, and the 
author of the Declaration. He was an ardent supporter 
of the doctrine of State Rights, and led the opposition 
to the Federalists. 

Model School History^ Taylor^ p. 1^6. 

216. The purchase of Louisiana, from France, in 
1803, for ;^ 1 5 ,000,000 ; War with Tripoli; The Hamilton 
-Burr duel, July nth, 1804; Expedition of Lewis and 
Clarke, 1804; The First Steamboat, Robert Fulton, 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 185 

1807; Slave Trade Abolished, 1808. 

Henry's School History of the U. S., pp, 84.-85. 

217. The Republicans, or Democrats elected James 
Madison as fourth President, and on March 4th, 1809, 
he was duly inaugurated. He was re-elected in 18 12, 
thus serving eight years. 

Id., pp. 8s-86. 

218. The principal events were a war with the Indi- 
ans of the Northwest, and the second war with England, 
usually styled "The War of 181 2." 

Id., p. 86. 

219. British emissaries aroused the Indians to war. 
A confederacy of the Northwestern tribes was formed 
by the famous chief Tecumseh. The war was terminat- 
ed by General Harrison's victory at the battle of Tippe- 
canoe, Indiana, Nov. 7th, 181 1. 

Id, p. 86. 

220. For a series of years England had oppressed 
American commerce. She had, besides, haughtily 
seized American seamen from the decks of American 
vessels, claiming them as deserters from her flag. It 
was no longer to be borne, and on the 19th of June, 
18 1 2, President Madison published a proclamation of 
war against England. 

Harper's School History of the U. S., pp. I2p-iji. 

221. Naval battle between the Essex (Am.) and the 
Alert (Br.), Aug. 13, 18 12. Com. Porter commanded 
Am's. Am's. victorious. Surrender of General Wil- 
liam Hull to British, Aug. 15, 18 12, on eve of battle. 
Naval battle between Constitution (Am.) and Guerriere 
(Br.), Aug. 19, 1812. Capt. Isaac Hull commanded 
Am's ; Capt. Dacres, the Br. Am's victorious. Bat- 
tle of Frenchtown, Jan. 22, 18 13; Am's defeated. Gen- 
eral Winchester, commander of the Americans ; Gen. 



186 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Proctor, the Br. Naval Battle between the Chesapeake 
(Am.) and the Shannon (Br.), Jan. i, 1813. Capt. Law- 
rence commanded Am's ; Capt. Broke, the Br Am's 
defeated. Naval battle between Am. fleet and Br. fleet, 
on Lake Erie, Sept. 10, 1813. Com. Perry commanded 
Am's ; Com. Barclay, the Br. Am's victorious. Bat- 
tle of Lundy's Lane, July 25th, 18 14; Am's victorious. 
Gen. Winfield Scott commanded Am's.; Gen. Riall, the 
Br. Capture of Washington City, Aug. 24, 1 8 14, by 
the Br. Gen. Ross burned the Capitol building. Bat- 
tle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, 181 5; Am's. victorious. 
Gen. Jackson commanded Am's ; Gen. Pakenham, the 
British. 

Hemy's School History of the U. S., pp. g5-g6-gy. 

222. A treaty of peace was concluded at Ghent, 
Dec. 24, 1814. 

Hafper's School History of the U. S., p. 1^0. 

223. Not a word was said in the treaty about oppres- 
sions on American commerce, nor about the right of 
search — the two causes of the war. 

Id., p. 14.0. 

224. In the Presidential election held in the Autumn 
of 1816, James Monroe, of Virginia, was elected by the 
Republicans, or Democrats. 

Henry's School Histofy of the U. 5., /. lOi. 

225. The Formation of the Colonization Society; 
The Construction of the Erie Canal ; War with the 
Seminole Indians; Florida ceded to the United States; 
The Monroe Doctrine ; LaFayette's visit ; Mississippi, 
Illinois, Alabama, Maine and Missouri admitted into the 
Union ; The Missouri Compromise. 

Id., pp. 102-10^. 

226. In one of President Monroe's messages, he de- 
clared, "that any attempt by a European nation to gain 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 187 

dominion in America, would be considered by the Uni- 
ted States an unfriendly act." 

Id,, p. 103. 

227. When the admission of Missouri was proposed, 
a violent debate arose on the question, whether it should 
be a slave or a free state. It was finally arranged, in 
1820, by an agreement, known as the Missouri Com- 
promise, that Missouri might come in as a slave state, 
but that slavery should be prohibited in all other terri- 
tory belonging to the United States west of the Missis- 
sippi and north of parallel 36° 30\ 

Campbell s School History of the U. S.y p. ij8. 

228. The great party which had twice triumphantly 
elected Monroe, was now divided into the Whig party 
and the Republican, or Democratic party. The Whigs 
were in favor of a protective tariff and a general system 
of internal improvements ; the Democrats , opposed 
them. 

Hemy's School History of the U. S., p. 104. 

229. John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay were the 
champions of the Whigs ; Andrew Jackson and John 
C. Calhoun of the Democrats. 

Id., p. 104.. 

230. No one receiving a majority of the electoral 
votes, the election went to the House of Representatives, 
by whom John Quincy Adams was chosen. 
Afiderson's Grammar School History of the U. S.^ p. 

137- 

231. The High Protective Tariff of 1828; Deaths of 
John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, July 4, 1826; Con- 
struction of the First Rail Road, 1827. 

Henrfs School Histojy of the U. S.^ pp. 104.-10^, 

232. The election of President during the fall of 
1828 ended in the choice of General Andrew Jackson, 



188 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

of Tennessee, the hero of New Orleans. His election 
was considered a triumph of the Democrats over the 
Whigs and the protective system. 

Harper s United States History^ p. 145- 

233. Asiatic Cholera, in 1832; Black Hawk's War; 
New Tariff Law, 1832; Nullification Act of South 
Carolina; Removal of the Cherokees; The Texan 
War; Great Fire in New York City, Dec. 16, 1835 ; 
Florida, or Seminole War, 1835; Abolition of the 
United States Bank; Death of Six Eminent Men; Ad- 
mission of Arkansas and Louisiana. 

School History of the United States , He?iry, pp. 105, 
106, 107, 108, 109. 

234. The election of President Van Buren was a 
triumph for the Democrats. It was a continuation of 
Jackson's policy. 

Swinton's History of the U. S., p. 188, Art. 143. 

235. The '* Panic of '37;" the Canadian Rebellion; 
Passage of the Sub-Treasury Bill. 

Id., pp. 188 and 189. 

236. The ni7ith President of the United States was 
William Henry Harrison of Ohio. 

Id., p. 189. 

237. The election of President Harrison was a tri- 
umph of the Whig party. 

Id., p. 190, Art. 149. 

238. President Harrison had been just a month in 
office when he died. 

Id., p. 190, Art. 150. 

239. By the terms of the Constitution, Vice-Presi- 
dent Tyler succeeded him in the office of President. 

Id., p. 190, Art. 150. 
240. 

Ans. No. I. Tyler leaves the Whigs; Sub- 
Treasury bill Repealed; Resignation of the President's 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 189 

Cabinet; Boundary of Maine settled in 1842; Rebel- 
lion in Rhode Island ; Annexation of Texas. 
Harpers School History of the U. S., pp. 149, 150 and 

151. 

Ans. No. 2. The Return of the Wilkes's Ex- 
ploring Expedition; Invention of the Sewing Machine, 
by Elias Howe, 1853; The Great Mormon Excitement 
of 1844; Invention of the Magnetic Telegraph, F. B. 
Morse, 1837; the Admission of Florida, Texas and 
Iowa. 
School History of the U. S., Henry, pp. no and in. 

241. The Texan question was the main issue of the 
campaign of 1844 — the Democrats being for, and the 
Whigs against, annexation. 

Id., p. 112. 

242. Jas. K. Polk was the Democratic candidate, 
and was inaugurated eleventh President, March 4th, 
1845. 

Id.yp. 112. 

243. The passage of the resolutions permitting 
Texas to join the Union was considered by the Mexi- 
cans as an act of hostility. Moreover the western 
boundary of Texas was in dispute. The Texans 
claimed the country as far as the Rio Grande, while, 
on the other hand, the Mexicans contended that the 
revolted province had never spread farther westward 
than the River Nueces. 

History of the U. S., Campbell, p. 146. 

244. Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, 
May 8 and 9, 1846. Capture of Monterey, Sept. 24, 
1846. Battle of Buena Vista, Feb'y 23, 1847. Cap- 
ture of City of Mexico, Sept. 14. 1847. 

Harpers School History, pp. 152, 154 and 156. 

245. The Americans gained every battle. 
Henry's School History of the U. 5., /. 1 16. 



190 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

246. Gens. Taylor and Scott, Am's; Santa Anna 
the Mexicans. , 

Id., pp. 116 and 117. 

247. The Mexican War \Nd.?> formally ended by the 
treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, concluded February 2, 
1848. 

United States Histojyy Swinton, p. igy, Art. 187. 

248. The treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo ceded to 
the United States all the vast territory now comprised 
in New Mexico, Utah, and California. In return Mex- 
ico received a compensation of fifteen millions of dol- 
lars. 

Id., pp. 197 and 198, Art, 188. 

249. Smithsonian Institution established in April, 
1846; Northern Boundary of the United States settled, 
June, 1846; Gold Discovered in California, Feb., 1848; 
Wisconsin admitted into the Union. 

School History of the United States, Henry, pp. 1 1 5 
and 116. 

250. Both political parties made efforts to secure 
the control of the territory acquired by the war. For 
this purpose, the Wilmot Proviso, so named from its 
author, David Wilmot, of Pennsylvania, was intro- 
duced into C ongress, excluding slavery from the whole 
of the new acquisitions. It was long discussed, but 
finally defeated. 

Model School History, Taylor, p. 230, Art. 332. 

251. In the campaign of 1848, three distinct par- 
ties — the Whigs, the Democrats, and the Free-soilers — 
brought out candidates. Taylor was nominated by the 
Whigs; General Lewis Cass of Michigan, by the Dem- 
ocrats; and Martin Van Buren, by the Free-soilers. 
History of the United States, V enable, p. 187, Art. 212. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 191 

252. They held that Congress should prohibit the 
introduction of slavery into the territories. 

Id., p. 187, Art. 212. 

253. Zachary Taylor. 

Id.,p, 187, Art. 212. 

254. When sixteen months had elapsed, Pres. Tay- 
lor's administration was abruptly closed by his death, 
which occurred, alter a brief illness, on the 9th of 
July, 1850. 

Id., p. 187, Art. 212. 

255. The Vice-President, Millard Fillmore of New 
York, now became chief magistrate. 

Id., p. 187, Art. 212. 

256. Admission of California, Sept. 9, 1850; The 
Passage of the Omnibus Bill;" Cuban "Fillibustering;" 
Deaths of John C. Calhoun, March 31, 1850, Henry 
Clay, June 28, 1852, Daniel Webster, Oct. 24, 1852. 
School History of the U. 5., Henry, pp. 125 and 126. 

257. California formed a Constitution, and applied 
to Congress for admission into the Union as a free 
state. Her admission was opposed by the Southern 
leaders, and for several months a hot discussion was 
carried on within the walls of Congress. 

School History of the U. S., Campbelly p. 156. 

258. The measures devised by Clay, known as the 
Omnibus Bill or Compromise of 1850, passed Congress 
in Sept. 

Id., p. 157. 

259. It provided, ist. For the admission of Cal- 
ifornia as a free state. 2d. For organizing territorial 
governments in Utah and New Mexico, without any 
provision for or against slavery. 3d. For establishing 
the boundary of Texas, as at present, and paying that 
state ten millions of dollars to relinquish all claim to 



192 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

additional territory. 4th. For prohibiting, not slave- 
ry, but the slave-trade in the District of Columbia. 
5th. For the enactment of a Fiigitive Slave Law, to 
enable masters to recover their slaves escaping to a 
free state. 

Id.,p.iS7- 

260. The question at issue was the Compromise 
Act of 1850. 

Model School History y Taylor, p. 235. 

261. The Candidates were Franklin Pierce, of New 
Hampshire, representing the Democratic party ; Gen- 
eral Winfield Scott represented the Whigs ; and John 
P. Hale, of New Hampshire, the Freesoilers. 

Id., p. 21^, Art. 347- 

262. Pierce was elected by a large majority, Scott 
receiving the vote of only three states. 

Id.,p.2i<,,Art. 347. 

263. The Gadsden Purchase; The World's Fair, at 
New York, July 14, 1853; The treaty with Japan; 
Commencement of the Pacific Railroad; the Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill; Assault on Charles Sumner. 

Id., pp. 236, 237 and2l^. 

264. The United States acquired 27,000 square 
miles of territory south of the Gila (he'-lah) river, by 
paying Mexico $10,000,000. This transaction is known 
as the Gadsden purchase. 

School Histojy of the U. 5., Henry, p. 126. 

265. In 1853 Stephen A. Douglas introduced the 
famous Kansas-Nebraska Bill, organizing the Territor- 
ies of Kansas and Nebraska, and giving the inhabit- 
ants of each Territory the right to decide for them- 
selves, whether the State should be admitted free or 
slave. 

Id.fp, 127. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 193 

266. This doctrine was called "squatter sovereign- 

ty." 

Id., p. 127. 

267. As it was a repudiation of the Missouri Com- 
promise, it caused violent and intense feeling. 

Id., p. 127. 

268. It became a law in 1854. 

Id., p. 127. 

269. It brought about a "border warfare" between 
the pro-slavery and the anti-slavery men. 

Id.yp. 127. 

270. The Know-Nothings, or Americans. 

Id., p. 127. 

271. It entertained the principle that America 
should be ruled by Americans and opposed the influ- 
ence of foreigners. 

Id., p. 127. 

272. The Free-Soil Democrats organized a new 
party styled "Republicans." 

Id., p. 127. 

273. The Democrats were in favor of letting slav- 
ery extend wherever it found its way by the voice of 
the people. 

Id., p. 128. 

274. In the election of 1856 the Know-Nothings 
supported ex-President Fillmore ; the Republicans, 
John C. Fremont; and the Democrats Jas. Buchanan. 
Buchanan was elected. 

Id., p. 128. 

275. The "Dred Scott" Decision; Trouble with the 
Mormons ; John Brown's Raid ; Oregon, Kansas and 
Minnesota admitted into the Union. 

Id., pp. 128 and 129. 

276. This decision, which was delivered by Chief 
Justice Taney, declared the Missouri Compromise un- 

13 



li)4 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

constitutional; that the Constitution gave slave-own- 
ers the right to hold their slaves in the territories, and 
that neither negro slaves nor their descendants, slave 
or free, could become citizens of the United States. 
School History of the United States, Campbelly p. i6o. 

277. Four. Abraham Lincoln, the candidate of 
the Republican party was elected. 

Id., p. 161. 

278. When it became known that the party oppos- 
ed to the further extension 01 slavery had been suc- 
cessful, and that Lincoln would be the the next presi- 
dent, public meetings were held in South Carolina to 
bring about a secession of that state from the Union ; 
and, on the 20th of December, i860, an ordinance of 
secession was passed by a state convention held in 
Charleston. 

Andei' son's United States History, p. 158. 

279. January, 1861, five of the slave states, — Miss- 
issippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia and Louisiana, 
passed secession ordinances; and, on the first of Feb- 
ruary, Texas did the same. 

Id., p. 158. 

280. On the fourth of February, 1861, a congress 
composed of delegates from all these states, except 
Texas, met at Montgomery; and four days after, or- 
ganized a government by the adoption of a "Provisional 
Constitution," assuming the title of the "Confederate 
States of Amsrica. 

Id., p. 159. 

281. 

1. The difference in habits and pursuits had 
tended to weaken the bonds of common ancestry. 

2. Different opinions of the nature of the gov- 
ernment, — whether it was an indivisible union or a mere 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 196 

compact of states, — had existed from the days of 
Washington. 

3. It had long been foreseen that the balance 
of political power, which was steadily moving north- 
ward, would at some time overthrow the southern 
rule. 

4. The failure of the Missouri Compromise, 
which had preserved peace for forty years, revived the 
earlier threats of disunion. 

5. The tariff, resulting in nullification, was 
seen to favor the manufacturing North at the expense 
of the cotton growing South. 

6. Little intercourse between the two sections 
led to jealousy and suspicion, till they looked upon 
each other almost as separate nationalities. 

7. The publication of sectional books, whose 
popularity depended on the animosity between the 
two sections, were generally filled with ridicule and 
falsehood, and did much to embitter the sectional 
hatred. 

8. The slavery question ; especially as involved 
in the annexation of Texas, The Fugitive Slave Law, 
the Dred Scott Decision, the Kansas struggle, the 
John Brown raid, — these, all these tended to alienate 
the sympathies of the people, and, in the excitements 
of the passing hour, made them forget their common 
interests and their common struggles for indepen- 
dence. The gates of war were opened. 

Model School Histo7y, Taylor, p. 249. 
2g2. President Lincoln's Inaugural Message was 
full of expressions of good-will to the South, urging 
obedience to the laws, and affirming that he "had no 
lawful right," and "no inclination," to interfere with 
slavery; that secession meant anarchy; and that, if 



196 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

war should arise, the South would be the aggressors. 
Harper's School History of the U. 5., p. i66. 

283. The first gun of the war was fired at Fort Sum- 
ter, S. C, at half-past four o'clock Friday morning, Apr. 
12, 1861. 

Barnes' s Brief History of the U. S., p. 216. 

284. This "strange contest between seventy men and 
seven thousand," lasted for thirty-four hours, no one be- 
ing hurt on either side. 

Id., p. 216. 

285. A regiment of Massachusetts militia hurrying 
to the defence of the national capital, was attacked in 
the streets of Baltimore, and several men were killed. 
Thus the first blood shed in the civil war was April 19, 
1861. 

286. The Confederate flag-— the "Stars and Bars"— 
was conspicuously displayed everywhere in the South ; 
the "Stars and Stripes," everywhere in the North. 

Henry's School History of the U, S.,p. ij2. 

287. The eleven States that formed the Southern 
Confederacy, were : South Carolina, Mississippi, Ala- 
bama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Ar- 
kansas, North Carolina, Tennessee. 

Id., p. 133. 

288. Bull Run, Va., July 21, 1861; Cedar Mountain, 
Va., Aug. 9, 1862; Second Bull Run, Va., Aug. 29, 
1862; Harper's Ferry, Va. , Sept. 15, 1862; Fredericks- 
burg, Va., Dec. 13, 1862; Chancellorsville, Va., May 
2d and 3d, 1863 ; Chickamauga, Ga., Sept. ipth and 
20th, 1863 ; Cold Harbor, Va., June 3d, 1864. 

Id., pp. ISO and 151. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 19T 

289. Rich Mountain, Va., July 11, 1861 ; Fort Hen- 
ry, Tenn., Feb. 6, 1862; Fort Donelson, Tenn., Feb. 
16, 1862; Pea Ridge, Mo., March 6, 1862; Merrimac 
and Monitor, Va., March 9, 1862; New Orleans, La., 
April 28, 1862; Murfreesboro', Tenn., Dec. 31, 1862; 
Vicksburg, July 4, 1863 ; Gettysburg, Pa., July ist and 
3d, 1863; Chattanooga, Tenn., Nov. 23d and 24th, 1863; 
Alabama and Kearsarge, Naval Battle, June 15th, 1864 ; 
Lost Mountain,Ga.,.June 15th and 17th, 1864; Atlanta, 
Ga, Sept. 2d, 18^4; Second Battle Cedar Creek, Va., 
Oct. 19, 1864; Nashville, Tenn., Dec. 15th and i6th, 
1864; Petersburg and Richmond, Va., April 2d, 1865. 

Id,, pp, 152 and 153. 

290. Indecisive Battles of the War : Shiloh, Tenn., 
April 6, 1862; Fair Oaks, Va., May 31, 1862; Savage 
Station, Va., June 29, 1862; Frazier's Farm, Va., June 
30,1862; Antietam, Md., Sept. 17, 1862; Perryville, 
Ky., Oct. 8, 18^2; Wilderness, Va., May 5th and 6th, 
1864; Spottsylvania, Va., May 8th and 12th, 1864. 

Id., p. 153. 

291. The surrender (;^f Lee's Army at Appomattox 
Court House, April 9, 1865. 

Sivinton's Condensed U. S. History, p. 286, 

292. The assassination of President Lincoln. 

Harper's School History, p. ig^, 

293. Vice-President Johnson. 

Id., p. ig6, 

294. The reconstruction of the Secession States. 

Id., p. igy. 

295. The Amnesty Proclamation ; Tenure of Office 
Bill ; Impeachment of the President ; Laying of the At- 
lantic Cable ; Purchase of Russian America. 

Id., pp. ig6-ig6. 



198 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Also, The 13th Amendment to the Constitution; 
The Civil Rights Bill passed; The Fenian Raid; Trouble 
with Mexico and France; Nebraska admitted ; Seceded 
States Re-admitted ; Fourteenth Amendment Adop ted ; 
Indian War; Treaty with China, 1868. 

Henrys School History, pp. 162-16^-16^. 

296. 1,000,000 men were destroyed on both sides; 
and the money paid out for the war was more than ^4, 
000,000,000. 

Id.^ p. 161, 

297. U. S. Grant. 

298. Building of the Pacific Railroad; Adoption of 
the Fifteenth Amendment ; The Ninth Census Taken ; 
The Alabama Claims Settled ; The Burning of Chicago 
in 1871. 

Model School History, pp. 2^4.-2^5-276. 

299. Great Fire in Boston, Nov. 9, 1872 ; The Mo- 
doc War ; The Great Financial Panic of 1873 ; i^73» 
the Year of Epidemics ; Troubles with Spain; Visit of 
the Grand Duke Alexis of Russia. Troubles in Louis- 
iana during 1873 and 1874; Visit of King Kalakaua of 
the Sandwich Islands, Pacific Ocean, 1875; Colorado 
Admitted, 1876; Deaths of Edward M. Stanton, Dec. 
1869, Gen. Robt. E. Lee, Gen. George H. Thomas and 
Admiral Farragut in 1870, William H. Seward, Prof 
Morse, Horace Greeley and Gen. Meade in 1872, Chief 
Justice Chase in 1873, Senator Chas. Sumner in 1874, 
Ex-President Andrew Johnson, John C. Breckinridge 
and Vice-President Henry Wilson in 1875 ; The Custar 
Slaughter 1876; The Centennial Exhibition at Phila- 
delphia from May lOth to Nov. 10, 1876; Visit of Dom 
Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, 1876. 

Hemys School History of the U. S. , //. 167-168-16Q- 
170, 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 199 

300. Rutherford B. Hayes. 

301. The Electoral Tribunal ; Troubles in Louisiana 
and South Carolina. Id., p. lyi. 

ANSWERS TO MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

302. Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Jack- 
son and Grant. 

303. Harrison, Taylor and Lincoln. 

304. Madison was President during the War of 
1812. 

Polk was President during the Mexican War. 
Lincoln was President during the Civil War. 

305. John Adams and John Quincy Adams. 

306. The old Republican party, as opposed to the 
Federalists, elected Jefferson and Madison. 

307. Jackson, VanBuren, Polk, Pierce and Buchan- 
an. 

308. Lincoln, Grant and Hayes. 

309. Washington and Monroe. 

310. Benjamin Franklin, inventor of the Lightning- 
rod 1752. 

Eli Whitney, inventor of the Cotton-Gin. . 1/93. 

Thomas Blanchard, inventor of the Tack- Ma- 
chine. . . 1806. 

Robert Fulton, inventor of the Steamboat. 1807. 

Jethro Wood, inventor of the Modern Cast-iron 
Plow. . . . 18 19. 

Ross Winans, inventor of the R. R. Passenger 
Car. ...... 1828. 

Samuel F. B. Morse, inventor of the Electric Tel- 
egraph. ..... 1837. 

Charles Goodyear, inventor of Vulcanized Rub- 
ber. ...... 1839. 

Elias Howe, inventor of the Sewing Machine. 

1843. 



200 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

Cyrus McCormick, inventor of the Harvesting 
Machine. . . . . 1845. 

James Lyall, inventor of the Positive Motion 
Loom. . . ... . . 1868. 

Jas. B. Eads, originator and constructor of the 
Great Steel Bridge over the Mississippi at St. Louis, 
1867; and of the Jetties below New Orleans. . 1876. 

Graham Bell, inventor of the Telephone. . 1877. 

Thomas A. Edison, inventorof the Talking Phon- 
ograph and Electric Light. . . • lZyy-78. 

311. Benjamin Franklin. 

312. Johnathan Edwards. 

313. Joseph E. Worcester and Noah Webster. 

314. Bowditch and Rittenhouse. 

315. The Audubons and Agassiz. 

316. Irving, Cooper, Brown, Hawthorne and Fcni- 
more. 

317. Sparks, Bancroft, Hildreth, Lossing, Prescott, 
Motley, Headley and Irving. 

318. Halleck, Poe, Willis, Whittier, Lowell, Long- 
fellow, Bryant, Freneau and Dana. 

319. William Cullen Bryant, Horace Greeley, Jas. 
Gordon Bennett, Sr. 

320. Powers, Greenough, Story, and Harriet Hos- 
mer. 

321. West, Copley, Page, Stuart, Trumbull and 
Sully. 

322. Webster, Clay, Everett, Calhoun and Sumner. 

323. The territory of the United States at the close 
of the Revolution, was bounded as follows: 

On the north by the Great Lakes, on the east 
by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Gulf of 
Mexico, and on the west by the Mississippi river; but 
from the region lying within this boundary, the Span- 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 201 

ish province of Florida and that part of the present 
State of Louisiana which lies east of the Mississippi 
River, must be excluded, in defining the original do- 
main of the U. S. 

324. In 1787, the region north of the Ohio River 
was organized under the name of the Northwest Ter- 
ritory, 

325. From this territory five states have been 
formed as follows : Ohio, in 1802; Indiana, in 18 16; 
Illinois, in 18 18; Michigan, in 1837; and IVisconsin, in 
1848. 

326. The region south of the Ohio was generally 
called the Southwest Territory. 

327. From it have been formed the following States: 
Kentucky, in 1792; Tennessee, in 1796; Mississippi, in 
1817; 2.nA Alabama /in 1819. 

328. No. 

329. No. 

330. Maine was granted to Sir Ferdinand Gorges 
and John Mason by the Council of Plymouth in 1622. 
In 1677 it was purchased from the heirs of Gorges and 
Mason by Massachusetts. It was organized and ad- 
mitted as a State in 1820. 

331. Vermont was formed out of territory which 
had been claimed by New York and New Hampshire. 
Vermont was admitted into the Union in 1791, being 
the first State admitted, and making the number of 
States fourteen. 

332. Louisiana, \n 1812; Missouri, m 182 1; Arkan- 
sas, in 1836; lozva, in 1846; Minnesota, in 1858; Ore- 
£-on,in 1859; Kansas, in 1861; Nebraska, in 1867; Col- 
orado, in 1876; Washington Territory organized, in 
1853; Dakotah Territory organized, in 1861; Idaho 
Territory organized, in 1863; Montana Territory or- 



202 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

ganized, in 1863: Wyoming Territory organized, in 
1 868 ; Indian - Territory. 

333. Florida was under Spanish rule until 1763, 
when it was ceded to Great Britain in exchange for 
Cuba, which the English had recently taken from 
Spain. In 1783 England ceded the province back to 
Spain, and in 1821 it was acquired by the United 
States f ^r the sum of $5,000,000. 

334. The region bounded by latitude 42°, the 
Rocky Mountains, latitude 54°, and the Pacific Ocean, 
was long known as Oregon. 

335. Captain Gray discovered its principal river in 
1792, and Lewis and Clark explored the country in 
1804. 

336. Texas was at one time a part of Mexico, but 
becoming dissatisfied with the government, revolted 
in 1836, and set up an independent government. In 
1845 Texas was annexed to the U. S. 

337. By the name of Russian America. 

338. The United States purchased Alaska of Rus- 
sia, in 1867, for $7,200,000. 

339. "Let us remember that the real glory of a 
nation comes not from riches or power, or lands of 
vast extent, but from the love of right and truth." 



QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY. 

1. Illustrate the value of physiological knowl- 
edge. 

2. Into what two bodies is the kingdom of nature 
divided ? 

3. Define organic bodies. 

4. What does this division include ? 

5. Define inorganic bodies. 

6. What does this division include ? 

7. What is the distinction between organic and 
inorganic matter } 

8. In what conditions may we study organized 
matter.? 

9. What science is derived from the first, and 
what from the second method ? 

10. Give a full and complete definition of physiol- 
ogy- 

11. Define anatomy. 

12. How are anatomy and physiology divided ? 

13. How are animal anatomy and physiology 
divided ? 

14. Define Comparative anatomy and physiology. 

15. To what are Human anatomy and physiology 
limited in their application.? 

16. How are plants nourished ? 

17. How are animals nourished ? 

18. What do animals always possess ? 

203 



204 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

19. What functions are peculiar to animals alone? 
2©. What substances enter into the structure of 
tlie human body ? 

21. What can you say of the interchangeability 
of these substances ? 

22. How do these substances vary at different 
periods of life ? 

23. What effect does this have on the limbs in 
childhood and in old age ? 

24. What offices do the fluids of the system per- 
form ? 

2$. Name the fluids of the body. 

26. How are the particles of matter arranged in 
solids ? 

27. Name the solids of the body. 

28. Give the list of chemical elements in the 
human body. 

29. Into what substances are these elements 
divided ? 

30. Name the metallic substances. 

31. Name the non-metallic substances. 

32. Give an arrangement of the parts of the body. 

33. Define a fibre. 

34. Define a fasciculus. 

35. Define a tissue. 

36. Define an organ. 

37. What is the action of an organ called ? 

38. Give an example of an organ and its function. 

39. Define an apparatus. 

40. Define a system. 

41. To what can every organ of the body be re- 
duced? 

42. What tissue is the primary form of all others.? 

43. How is the cellular tissue formed? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 205 

44. Where is the cellular tissue found ? 

45. What is the chief use of this tissue ? 

46. What different names have been given to the 
cellular tissue ? 

47. Describe the osseous tissue. 

48. Describe the muscular tissue. 

49. Describe the nervous tissue. 

50. Into what divisions may the human system be 
divided ? 

51. How are the bones constructed .^ 

52. Give the principal uses of the bones. 

53. Why do the bones have such diffeient shapes? 

54. Of what are the bones- composed ? 

55. What are the different uses of the component 
parts of the bones ? 

56. In what state do bones exist at first ? 

57. How are they converted into bone ? 

58. Which portion of the bones continues to in- 
crease and which to diminish to old age ? 

59. What proportion of the bones is animal mat- 
ter in children? — in adults ? — in old age ? 

60. What is the condition of the bones in chil- 
dren? 

61. At what age do the bones arrive to perfec- 
tion .? 

62. What is the condition of the bones in old 
age.? 

63. What is the strength of the human bone ? 

64. How many bones are there in the human 
ocrdy .'■' 

65. 'Oefine ossification of the bones. 

66. What is meant by centres of ossification ? 

6y. What is the only bone in the body which is 
completely ossified, or hardened at birth ? 



206 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

68. What is the connection between any two 
bones called ? 

69. How many joints are there in the human 
body ? 

70. How many kinds of joints are there ? 

71. What is the construction of a movable joint ? 

72. Define cartilage. 

73. What are the chief uses of cartilage ? 

74. What is the membrane called that invests the 

bones ? 

75. Into how many parts are the bones of the 

body divided ? 

76. How are the bones of the head divided ? 
yy. Describe the bones of the skull. 

78. Name the bones of the skull. 

79. How are the bones of the skull united ? 

80. What is the form of the skull ? 

81. How many bones in the ear, and what is their 

use .■* 

82. How many bones in the face, and what is 

their use ? 

83. Name the boiics of the trunk. 

84. How many bones in the spinal column ? How 
are they arranged ? 

85. How are the bones of the spinal column 
divided ? 

86. What is gained by the division of the spinal 
column into so many separate pieces ? 

87. Of what does each vertebrae consist ? 

88. How many ribs are there ? 

89. What do the ribs form } 

90. Into how many and what classes are the ribs 
divided ^ 

91. Describe the curvatures of the ribs. 

92. How, and to what are the ribs united ? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 207 

93. Describe the Sternum. 

94. How many and what bones in the Pelvis ? 

95. How many bones in the upper extremities ? 
Name them. 

96. How many bones in the lower extremities ? 
Name them. 

97. What is a muscle ? 

98. How are the motions of the body performed .? 

99. How is muscular motion exerted ? 

100. What are characteristic properties of muscles? 

lOi. What does contractility imply ? 

102. What does sensibility imply ? 

103. Muscles are of how many kinds ? 

104. How are the voluntary and involuntary mus- 
cles distinguished? 

105. What are the uses of the muscles? 

106. How many muscles are there? 

107. How are the muscles arranged? 

108. How are the muscles attached to the bones.? 

109. What effect has exercise upon the muscles? 

1 10. Name the digestive organs. 

111. Describe the mouth. 

112. Name the Salivary Glands. 

113. Describe the Pharynx. 

114. Describe the Esophagus. 

115. Describe the human stomach. 

116. How is it placed? 

117. What is its average capacity in the adult? 

118. How many openings has it, and what are thev 
called? 

1 19. How many coats does the stomach possess, and 
what are they? 

120. Describe the Lacteals. 

121. Describe the Intestines. 

122. Describe the Liver. 



508 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

123. Describe the Pancreas. 

124. What must our food contain? ^ 

125. Define food. 

126. Of what does food consist? 

127. What does organic food comprise? 

128. What does inorganic food comprise? 

129. What changes are wrought upon the food in 
the body.? 

130. What does digestion comprise? 

131. What are the chief functions of the stomach? 

132. What are the chief conditions favorable to 
stomach-digestion ? 

133. Name the digestive fluids. 

134. What are the functions of the saliva? 
135- What is the function of the gastric juice? 

136. What are the functions of the bile.? 

137. What are the functions of the pancreatic 
juice? 

138. What is the probable function of the intesti- 
nal juice? 

139- Of what is chyme composed? 

140. When is chyme changed to chyle? 

141. What is the object of absorption? 

142. How is absorption effected? 

143. Explain absorption by blood vessels. 

144. Explain absorption by lacteals. 

145. Describe the lymphatic system. 

146. How is the chyle finally made into blood? 

147. What are the organs used for the circulation 
of the blood? 

148. Describe the Heart. 

149. Describe the Auricles. 

150. Describe the Ventricles. 

151. How do the cavities in the heart differ? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 209 

152. What is found between the auricle and ventri- 
cle in the right side of the heart? 

153. How many valves in the left side, and their 
names? 

154. What vessels proceed from the ventricles? 

155. Describe their valves. 

156. Give a complete description of the valves of 
the heart. 

157. With what is the heart supplied? 

158. Has the heart sensibility? 

159. Name and describe the parts of the circula- 
tion of the blood. 

160. What propels the blood through the body? 

161. Describe the movements of the heart. 

162. What are the veins.!* 

163. Where do they commence ? 

164. Give the structure of the coats of the veins. 

165. What are arteries ? 

166. Give their structure. 

167. Describe the coats of the arteries. 

168. What do the capillaries constitute? 

169. For what are the capillaries remarkable? 

170. What relation do the capillaries bear to the 
arteries and veins? 

171. What important operations are performed in 
these vessels? 

172. Give the elements of the blood. 

173. Give the specific gravity and temperature of 
the blood. 

174. How much blood in the body? 

175. Give the use of the corpuscles of the blood. 

176. State the difference between the red and white 
blood corpuscles. 

177. Name the uses of the blood. 

14 



210 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

178. Name the respiratory organs. 

179. What organs also aid in the respiratory pro- 
cess ? 

180. What is the structure of the lungs ? 

181. Describe the trachea. 

182. Define an air-cell. 

183. Of what use are the capillaries in the lungs ? 

184. What is the difference between arterial and 
venous blood ? 

185. What is respiration ? 

186. What is the object of respiration .!* 

187. State the deductions from the experiments of 
Dr. Southwood Smith. 

188. Compare the lungs and heart, giving three 
points in common and three points of difference. 

189. What are the heat producing organs ? 

190. What is at present the most readily accepted 
theory of animal heat ? 

191. What is the temperature of the human body I 

192. How is the body kept at its uniform tempera- 
ture.? 

193. What is the essential organ of the voice in all 
animals? 

194. Describe the larynx. 

195. What are the vocal chords ? 

196. What are the essential conditions of the pro- 
duction of the human voice? 

197. Name the secretory organs. 

198. Describe the exhalants, 

199. Describe the follicles. 

200. Describe the glands. 

201. What is secretion? 

202. What is the skin? 

203. Describe the two layers of the skin. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 211 

204. Name the general properties of the skin. 

205. Give the uses of the skin. 

206. Describe the hair and nails. 

207. Describe the secretions of the skin. 

208. Give the functions of the nervous system. 

209. Give the divisions of the nervous system. 

210. What does the cerebro-spinal system com- 
prise.^ 

211. What does the sympathetic system contain? 

212. Describe the brain. 

213. Give the divisions of the brain. 

214. Describe the cerebrum and cerebellum. 

215. Describe the spinal cord. 

216. Describe the cerebro-spinal nerves. 

217. Of what does the sympathetic system consist.^ 

218. Of what is the nervous system composed.^ 

219. What are the functions of the cerebrum.^ 

220. What are the functions of the cerebellum? 

221. What is the function of the medulla oblon- 
gata? 

222. What are the functions of the spinal cord.? 

223. What are the functions of the sympathetic 
system r 

224. With what are the nerves endowed ? 

225. Define the sensory organs. 

226. Of what does the structure of the sense of 
touch consist? 

227. Of what does the structure of the sense of 
taste consist? 

228. Of what does the structure of the sense of 
smell consist? 

229. Of what does the structure of the sense of 
sight consist? 

230. Name the three coats of the eye-ball. 

231. Of what is the optical apparatus made up? 



212 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

232. Of what does the structure of the sense of 
hearing consist? 

233. To what is the outer ear adapted? 

234. Describe the middle ear. 

235. Describe the inner ear. 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHYSI- 
OLOGY. 



I. Precious lives are frequently lost through igno- 
rance. Thousands squander in early years the 
strength which should have been kept for the work of 
real life. Habits are often formed which entail weak- 
ness and poverty upon manhood. Some silly feat of 
strength may produce an irreparable injury. A 
thoughtless hour of reading by twilight may impair 
the sight for life. A terrible accident may happen, 
and we might be able to save life if we " only knew 
what to do." Physiology gives us that knowledge 
which may save or lengthen life, repel or abate dis- 
ease, and which regulates our bodily vigor. 

Steele's Fourteen Weeks in Physiologyy p. 15. 

2. The ^ingdom of nature is divided into organic 
and inorganic bodies. 

Cutter's Anatomy^ Physiology and Hygiene^ p. 13. 

3. Organic bodies possess organs, on whose ac- 
tions depend their growth and perfection. 

Id., pp. 13 and 14. 

4. This division includes animals and plants. 

Id., p, 14. 

5. Inorganic bodies are devoid of organs, or in- 
struments of life. 

Id., p. 14, 

813 



2U THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

6. In this division are classed the earths, metals, 
and other minerals. Id., p. 14. 

7. The distinction between these two great 
classes of materials is based upon form, coherence, 
growth, composition and derivation. 

First Lessons in Physiology, Hotzc, p. lO. 

8. There are two conditions in which we may 
study organized matter: namely, as living beings and 
as dead bodies. 

Class- Book of Physiology, Comings, p. 10, Art. 6. 

9. The science of Physiology is derived from the 
first method, and the science of Anatomy from the 
second. 

Id., p. 10, Art. 7. 

10. Human Physiology is the science which treats 
of the life of man— of the way in which he lives, and 
moves, and has his being. It teaches how man is be- 
gotten and born, how he attains maturity; and how 
he dies. 

Hand- Book of Physiology, Kirk, p,. 13. 

11. Anatomy teaches the number, size, situation, 
and composition of the various parts, with their rela- 
tions to each other. 

Class- Book of Physiology, Comings, ^. lO, Art. 9. 

12. Anatomy and Physiology, in their most ex- 
tended use, apply to all organized beings, though they 
are naturally divided into the several branches of Veg- 
etable Anatomy and Physiology, and Animal Anatomy 
and Physiology. 

Id., p. 10, Art. 10. 

13. Animal Anatomy and Physiology are again 
divided into Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, 
and Human Anatomy and Physiology. 

Id., p. 10, Art. II. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 215 

14. Comparative Anatomy and Physiology are 
devoted to the lower orders of animals. 

Id., p. 10, Art, 12. 

15. Human Anatomy and Physiology are limited 
in their application to man. 

Id., p. 10, Art. 13. 

16. Plants are nourished by the inorganic ele- 
ments found in the earth and air around them. The 
materials of their growth are received in the form of 
a liquid or a gas, already prepared for their use. 

Id., p. 15, Art. 16. 

17. Animals are nourished by the organic materi- 
als of vegetables or of other animals. 

Id., p. 15, Art. 17. 

18. Animals always possess a stomach or a diges- 
tive cavity, in which their food is received, to undergo 
a process of preparation before it can be absorbed into 
their tissues. 

Id., p. 15, Art. 17. 

19. Sensation and voluntary motion are peculictr 
to animals alone, and are therefore called animal func- 
tions. 

Id., p. 15, Art. 18. 

20. In the structure of the human body, there is 
a union of fluids and solids. 

Anatomy, PJiysiology and Hygiene, Cutter, p. 17, Art. 
17- 

21. These substances are essentially the same, for 
the one is readily changed into the other. There is 
no fluid that does not contain solid matter in solution, 
and no solid matter that is destitute of fluid. 

Id., p. 17, Art. 17. 

22. In different individuals, and at different peri- 
ods of life the proportion of fluids and solids varies. 



S16 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

In youth, the fluids are more abundant than in ad- 
vanced life. 

Id,, p. 17, Art. 18. 

23. For this reason, the limbs in childhood are 
soft and round, while in old age they assume a hard 
and wrinkled appearance. 

Id., p. 17, Art. 17. 

24. The fluids not only contain the materials from 
which every part of the body is formed, but they are 
the medium for conveying the waste, decayed particles 
of matter from the system. 

Id., p. 17, Art. 19. 

25. The fluids of the body are blood, chyle, 
lymph, saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, synovia, 
mucus, and serum. Bile, sweat, and urine are excre- 
tions. 

Physiology and Hygiene, Loughborough, p. 19, Ans. 28. 

26. The particles of matter in solids are arranged 
variously; sometimes in fibres, (threads,) sometimes 
in laminae, (plates,) sometimes homogeneously, as in 
basement membranes. 

Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, Cutter, p. 17, Art. 
20. 

27. The solids of the body are bones, teeth, 
cartilages, ligaments, muscles, nerves, vessels, viscera, 
membranes, skin, hair, and nails. 

Physiology and Hygiene, Loughborough, p. 19, Ans. 27. 

28. Of the sixty-five chemical elements or simple 
bodies known to exist, only fifteen have been found as 
normal constituents of the human body. The follow- 
ing is the list: 

1. Oxygen, 9. Sodium, 

2. Hydrogen, 10. Potassium, 

3. Carbon, li. Chlorine, 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 817 

4. Nitrogen, 12. Fluorine, 

5. Sulphur, 13. Silicon, 

6. Phosphorus, 14. Iron, 

7* Calcium, 15. Manganese. 

8. Magnesium, 
Hitchcock' s Anatomy and Physiology, p. 6, Art. 10. 

29. These elements are divided into metallic and 
non-metallic substances. 

Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, Cutter, p. 25, Art. 
43. 

30. The metalHc substances are Potassium, 
Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Aluminum, Iron, 
Manganese, and Copper. 

Id., p. 2S,Art.43. 

31. The non-metallic substances are Oxygen^ 
Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Silicium, Phosphorus^ 
Sulphur, Chlorine, and a few others. 

7.3^.,/. 25, ^^^.43. 

32. The parts of the body are arranged into 
Fibres, Fasciculi, Tissues^ Organs, Apparatuses, and 
Systems. 

Id.,p. 17, Art. 21. 

33. A fibre is a thread of exceeding fineness. It 
is either cylindriform or flattened. 

Id., p. 18, Art. 22. 

34. A fasciculus is the term applied to several 
fibres united. Its general characteristics are the same 
as fibres. 

Id., p. 18, Art. 23. 

35. A tissue is a term applied to several different 
solids of the body. 

Id., p. 18, Art. 24. 

36. An organ is an instrument composed of tissues, 
and designed for action. 

Class- Book of Physiology, Comings, p. 21, Art. 36. 



218 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

37. Its action is called its function or use. 

Id., p. 27, Art. 36. 

38. The liver is an organ, and the secretion of 
bile its function. 

Id.,p2i, Art. 36. 

39. An apparatus consists of a number of different 
organs, arranged for the performance of some office. 
The teeth, mouth, stomach, intestines, etc., belong 
to the digestive apparatus. Id.^ /• 21, Art. 37. 

40. A system is a connected series of similiar 
parts, such as the muscular or the nervous system. 

Id., p. 21, Art. 38. 

41. However various all organs may appear in 
their structure and composition, it is now supposed 
that they can be reduced to a few tissues, as the Ccl- 
hilar, Osseous, Muscular, Mucous, Nervous, etc. 
Anatomy, Physiology a^id Hygiene, Cutter, p. 29, Art. 

29. 

42. The cellular or areolar tissue is regarded as 
the primary form of all others. 

Class-Book of Physiology, Comings, p. 22, Art. 40. 

43. It is formed by the crossing or interlacing of 
minute fibres, intervvoV^en in every direction, so as to 
form a web-like membrane with innumerable small 
spaces, which communicate with each other. 

Id., p. 22, Art. 40, 

44. The cellular tissue is found in every part of 
the system, except in compact portions of bone, teeth 
and cartilage. Id., p. 22, Art. 40. 

45. Its chief use seems to be to connect to- 
gether organs and parts of organs which require a cer- 
tain degree of motion on each other. It possesses 
great power of extensibility and elasticity. 

Id., p. 22, Art. 41. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. . 219 

46. Various names have been assigned to the cel- 
lular membrane, corresponding to the different posi- 
tions in which it is found. When inclosing those or- 
gans not exposed to the air, it receives the name of 
serous membrane, from a fluid secreted in it, called 
serum. In the lining of the respiratory passages and 
of the alimentary canal, it is called mucous membrane, 
from a secretion of mucous which is poured out from 
nu-merous glands beneath its surface. Where it forms 
a covering for the body, it is known as the dermoid 
membrane, or skin. 

Id., pp, 22 and 23, Art. 42. 

47. The osseous tissue, in composition and ar- 
rangement of matter, varies at different periods of 
life, and in different bones. In some instances, the 
bony matter is disposed in plates, while in other in- 
stances, the arrangement is cylindrical. Sometimes, 
the bony matter is dense and compact; again, it is 
spongy, or porous. 

Anatomy y Physiology, arid Hygiene, Cutter, p. 23, Art. 

38. 

48. The muscular tissue is composed of many 
fibres, that unite to form fasciculi, each of which is en- 
closed in a delicate layer of cellular tissue. 

7^.,/. 23, ^r/. 39. 

49. The nervous tissue consists of soft, pulpy 
matter, enclosed in a sheath, called neurilenia. This 
tissue consists of two substances. The one, of a pulpy 
character and gray color, is called cin-e-ritious, (ash- 
colored.) The other, of a fibrous character and white, 
is named medullary, (marrow-like.) 

Id., p. 24, Ar^t. 41. 

50. Though the body is harmoniously united into 
a single system, it can be dissected and the parts de- 



220 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

scribed separately. The following order is here 
adopted : 

1. Osteology, or an account of the Bones or 
frame work of the system. 

2. Myology, an account of the Muscles or the 
moving powers of the system. 

3. Splanchnology, or the Nutritive Organs.- 

4. A7igiology^ an account of the Circulating 
System of the arteries and veins. 

5. Pneumonology, or an account of the Respira- 
tory, Vocal, and Calorific organs. 

6. Ichorology, or the Lymphatic and Secreting 
System. 

7. Neurology, or the history of the Nervous 
System, the vivifying power. 

8. The Inlets of the soul, or the Senses. 
Hitchcock's Anatomy and Physiology, pp. 2p-jo, Art. yg. 

51. The bony structure is a dense, sub-fibrous 
basis, filled with minute cells, and traversed in all direc- 
tions by branching and connected canals called Haver- 
sian, which give room to blood vessels and nerves. 

Physiology and Hygiene Loughborough, p. 20. 

52. The bones have three principal uses : i. To 
protect the delicate organs ; 2. To serve as levers on 
which the muscles may act to produce motion ; and 3. 
To preserve the shape of the body. 

Steele's Fourteeit Weeks in Physiology^ p. rg, 

53. Bones differ in form according to the uses they 
subserve. For convenience in walking, some are long; 
for strength and compactness, some are short and thick; 
for covering a cavity, some are flat; and for special pur- 
poses, some are irregular. 

Id.yp, /p. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 221 

54. The bones are composed of both animal and 
earthy matter. 

Anatomy^ Physiology and Hygiene, Cutter y p, 2g, Art. 
68. 

55. The earthy portion of the bone gives them so- 
lidity and strength, while the animal part endows them 
with vitality. 

Id. , /. 2Q, Art. 68. 

56. At first, bones exist in a state of cartilage. 
Ciass-Book of Physiology., Comings, p. ip/, Art. ^05. 

57. They are gradually converted into bones by a 
deposition of phosphate and carbonate of lime. 

Id., p. igy, Art. 4.05. 

58. The lime of the earthy portion of the bones is 
continually increasing till old age, while the animal por- 
tion is gradually diminishing. 

Id., p. ip7, Art. 4.06. 

59. In children, the animal matter constitutes about 
one-half; in adults, one-fifth; and in old age, one-eighth 
of the whole composition. 

Id., p. ip7, Art. 406. 

60. In children, the bones are soft and flexible, and 
admirably adapted to sustain the numerous falls and ac- 
cidents, to which they are liable, without injury. 

Id., p. 197, Art. 407. 

61. The bones do not arrive at their perfect state 
until about the twentieth year. 

Id., p. igy, Aft. 408. 

62. As the animal matter of the bones diminishes 
in old age, they become hard and brittle. 

Id., p. ip7. Art. 40 p. 

63. Human bones, when used as levers, are twenty- 
two times as strong as sandstone, three and one-half 
times as strong as lead, nearly two and three-fourths 



222 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

times as strong as elm and ash, and twice as strong as 
box, yew, and oak timber. 

Hand-Book of Health, Loughborough, p. 2i,Ans. j6. 

64. There are two hundred and eight bones in the 
human body, beside the teeth. Some anatomists reck- 
on more than this number, others less, for the reason 
that, at different periods of life, the number of pieces ol 
which one bone is formed, varies. 

Example. — The breast-bone, in infancy, has eight 
pieces; in youth, three; in old age, but one. 

Cuttef's Anatomy^ Physiology and Hygiene^ p. j2. 

65. The process of ossification is the deposition of 
mineral matter in the cartilage. 

First Lessons in Physiology^ Hotze^ p. i^. 

66. The deposition of mineral matter in the carti- 
lage takes place first at particular points, called the 
centres of ossification. 

Ld,, p. 14. 

67. It is that bone which is called the petrous, 
which contains the organs of hearing. 

Hand Book of Health, Loughborough^ p. 2j. 

68. A joint or articulation. It is by means of these 
joints that the various motions of the bones are easily 
made. 

Id, p. 38. 

69. Over two hundred, all perfectly adapted to their 
various positions and work. 

Id, p. 38. 

70. 

Ans.No. I. Three: fixed, or such as the joints 
of the skull and upper jaw, teeth and vomer ; movable, 
such as the shoulder, hip, elbow, wrist, knee, ankle, car- 
pus, and tarsus ; intermediate, or such joints as those in 
the vertebral column. Id., p. ^r. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 22» 

Ans. No. 2. There are several kinds of joints in 
the body, the most important of which are the hinge- 
joint at the elbow and knee, and the ball and socket- 
joint at the hip and shoulder. 

Class- Book of Physiology, Comings, p. 20j, Art. ^.ig. 

71. The opposing surfaces are coated by an elastic 
substance called cartilage, this is lubricated — oiled — by 
a fluid called synovia, which is secreted in an enclosed 
membrane or bag, called synovial. 

Hand- Book of Health, Loughbofough, p. ^g, 

72. Cartilage is a dense, firm substance nearly re- 
lated to bone, but it lacks the mineral ingredients of 
bone, which makes it softer and more elastic. 

First Lessons in Physiology, Hotze, p. jo. 
73. The chief uses of cartilage are the following : 
(i.) To yield smooth surfaces for easy friction 
in the joints ; and to act as a cushion in shocks. 

(2.) To fasten bones together without destroy- 
ing freedom of movement, as between the vertebrae. 

(3.) To serve as a firm yet not unyielding frame- 
work, as in the iarynx and trachea. 

(4.) To adapt itself to all purposes where firm- 
ness, toughness, elasticity and strength are required. 

Id., p. JO. 

74. The bones are closely covered with a very 
firm, whitish-yellow membrane, very smooth, this is 
called the periosteum. This membrane encloses the 
vessels which convey nutriment into the bones. It is 
to this periosteum that the ligaments and tendons are 
attached, as they can not fasten to the bone itself. 
Hand-Book of Health, LougJiborough, pp. 41 and \2. 

75. They are divided, for convenience, into four 
parts : 

1st. The bones of the Head. 



224 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

2d. The bones of the Trunk. 
3d. The bones of the Upper extremities. 
4th. The bones of the Lower Extremities. 
Anatomy^ Physiology and Hygiene^ Cutter^ p. ^2^ Art, 

74- 
Jd. The bones of the head are divided into those 
of the Skullf Ear and Face. 

Id., p. 12, Art. 75. 
77. The skull is composed of eight bones. They 
are formed of two plates, or tablets of bony matter, 
united by a porous portion of bone. 

Id., p. 32, Art. j6. 
yS. I Frontal, i Occipital, 2 Temporal, i Sphenoid, 
2 Parietal, i Ethmoid. 
Hitchcock's Afiatomy and Physiology, p. 42, Art. 106. 

79- The bones of the skull are united by ragged 
edges called Sutures. These are small and rough pro- 
jections of bone which are largest at their extremities, 
and are made to fit into the edges of the opposite 
bone with great firmness. 

Id., pp. 46 and 47. 

80. The skull is convex externally, and at the 
base much thicker than at the top or sides. 
Cutters Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, /. 32, Art, 

77- 

81. In each ear are four very small bones. They 
aid in hearing. 

Id., p. 34, Art. 80. 

82. In the face are fourteen bones, some of which 
serve for the attachment of powerful muscles, which 
are more or less called into action in masticating food; 
others retain in place the soft parts of the face. 

Id., p. 34, Art. Si. 

83. The bones of the trunk include those of the 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 225 

Spinal coluitm, (back bone,) the thorax, (chest,) and 
the pelvis, (basin.) 

Human and Comparative Anatomy, Physiology and 
Hygiene, Ciitter, p. 95. 

84. The spinal column is composed of twenty-four 
bones. These are so arranged that a tube or canal is 
formed through the whole column. 

Id., p. 95, Art. 230. 

85. Seven of these are called cervical (neck) 
bones, twelve dorsal (back) bones, five lumbar (loin) 
bones. 

Id., p. 95, Art. 231. 

86. By the division of the spinal column into so 
large a number of separate bones, very great freedom of 
motion is allowed, with only a slight bend at any par- 
ticular point. 

Class-Book of Physiology, Cornings, *p. 205, Art. 430. 

87. Each vertebrae consists of a body, which is 
situated in front of the spinal canal; and of seven 
processes or projections, which serve to form the spi- 
nal canal, and unite the vertebrae to each other by af- 
fording attachments for the muscles. 

Id., p. 205, Art./^^i. 

88. There are twenty-four ribs — twelve on each 
side. 

Brown's Physiology and Hygiene, p. 6"/, Art. 91. 

89. The ribs form the side walls of the thorax. 

Id., p. 67, Art.^i. 

90. The ribs are divided into three classes. Seven 
are true ribs, three are false ribs, and two are floating 
ribs. Id., p. 6y, 

91. Each rib has two curvatures — one which bends 
it around the chest horizontally, and another which 
gives it a downward curvature from the back forward. 

Id., p. 67, Art. 91. 

16 



226 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

92. The ribs are united to the vertebrae by true 
joints, but forward, the true ribs join the breast-bone 
by flexible cartilages. The three false ribs unite to a 
cartilage which is common to all of them, and by 
means of which they are attached to the breast-bone. 
The floating ribs have no forward attachment. 

Id., pp. 67 and62>, Art. 91. 

93. The Sternum, or breast-bone, forms the front 
of the thorax. In infancy, it is in eight distinct 
pieces; in youth, three; and in old age, but one. 

Id., p. 6^, Art. 92. 

94. The Pelvis, or lower division of the trunk, con- 
sists of four bones. The Sacrum, the Coccyx, and the 
Innominatum. 

Id.,p.62>. 

95. The upper extremities contain sixty-four bones 
— the Scapula, (shoulder-blade;) the Clavicle, (collar- 
bone;) the Humerus, (first bone of the arm;) the Ulna 
and Radius, (bones of the fore-arm;) the Carpus, 
(wrist;) the Metacarpus, (palm of the hand;) and the 
Phalanges, (fingers and thumb.) 

Cutter's Afiatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, p. 39, Art. 

96. 

96. The lower extremities contain sixty bones — 
the Femur, (thigh-bone;) the Patella, (knee-pan;) the 
Tibia, (shin-bone;) the Fibula, (small bone of the 
leg;) the Tarsus, (instep;) the Metatarsus, (middle of 
the foot;) and the Phalanges, (toes.) 

Id., p. 42, Art. 105. 

97. A muscle is an aggregation of minute fibres, 
each of which is again composed of minute fibrils, held 
together by a delicate membrane. 

First Lessons in Physiology, Hotze, p. 48. 

98. All the motions in the animal body are per- 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 227 

formed by muscles. Generally speaking, muscles are 
the organs of motion. 

Id., p. 48- 
99. Muscular motion is exerted by means of the 
contractility of muscles. 

Id., p. 48. 
100. Contractility and sensibility are characteristic 
properties of muscles. 

7^.,/. 43. 
lOi. Contractility implies their power of contract- 
ing and relaxing. 

Id., p. 48. 

102. Sensibility implies their power of communica- 
ting impressions directly to the mind. 

Id., p. 48. 

103. Muscles are of two kinds: involuntary and 
voluntary. 

Id., p. 48. 

104. The voluntary and involuntary muscles are 
distinguished by their structure and mode of action. 

Id., p. 48. 

105. The uses of the muscles are: 
(i.) To produce motion; 

(2.) To hold the limbs in position; 
(3.) To protect the skeleton. 

106. There are, in all, about five hundred muscles, 
each having its special use, and all working in exquis- 
ite harmony and perfection. 

Fourteen Weeks in Physiology, Steele, p. 43. 

107. The muscles are arranged in pairs, each with 
its antagonist, so that as they contract and expand 
alternately, the bone to which they are attached is 
moved to and fro. 

Id.,pp, 43 and^^. 



228 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

io8. The ends of the muscles are generally attached 
to the bone by strong, flexible, but inelastic tendons. 

109. The effect of exercise upon a muscle is very 
marked. By use it grows larger, and becomes hard, 
compact and darker-colored; by disuse it decreases in 
size, and becomes soft, flabby, and pale. Id.^ p. 52. 

no. The digestive organs are the Mouthy Teethy 
Salivary Glands, Pharynx, Oesophagus, (gullet,) 
Stomach, Intestines^ (bowels,) Lacteals, (milk, or chyle 
vessels,) Thoracic Duct, Liver, and the Pancreas, 
(sweetbread.) 

Cutter's Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, p. 11^, Art. 
235. 

111. The Mouth is an irregular cavity, which con- 
tains the instruments of mastication and the organs 
of taste. It is bounded in front by the lips; on each 
side by the internal surface of the cheeks; above, by 
the hard palate and teeth of the upper jaw; below, by 
the tongue and teeth of the lower jaw; behind, it is 
continuous with the pharynx, but is separated from it 
by a kind of movable curtain called the soft palate. 

Id., pp. 113 and 114, Art. 236. 

112. The Salivary Glands are six in number ; three 
on each side of the jaw. They are called the parotid^ 
the sub-maxillary, and the sub-liitgual. 

Id., p. 114, Art. 237. 

113. The Pharynx is a short and somewhat irregu- 
lar tubular cavity, into which the mouth opens behind, 
serving as a portion of the canal from the mouth to 
the stomach. It also communicates with both ears, 
with the nostrils and lungs, by passages which open 
directly into it. 

Hitchcock's A7iatomy and Physiology, pp. 156 and 157, 
Art. 292. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 229 

114. The Pharynx terminates in the Esophagus 
(meaning the passage for conveying the food.) This 
is a long and narrow tube, made up of two muscular 
coats, which terminates in the stomach by the cardiac 
orifice. It is smaller in size than the Pharynx, and 
contains a great number of minute glands, which secrete 
an oily fluid when the food is passing through it. 

Id., pp. 157 and 158, Art. 293. 

115. The Stomach in man is an oblong membran- 
ous bag. 

Class-Book of Anatomy^ Coming, p. 80, Art. 163. 

116. It is placed obliquely across the abdomen, and 
just below the diaphragm. 

Id., p. 80, Art. 163. 

117. The average capacity in the adult is about one 
quart, though it may be distended to contain a much 
larger quantity, or be contracted to a very small 
size. 

Id., p. 8a 

118. It has two openings — one towards the heart, 
called the cardiac orifice, which receives the food from 
the Eosophagus — and the other at the right or small 
end of the stomach, called the pyloric orifice, for the 
transmission of food to the small intestines. 

Id., p. 80, Art. 163. 

1 19. The stomach possesses three coats — the outer 
or serous, the middle or muscular, and the inner or 
mucous. 

Id., p. 80, Art. 164. 

120. The Lacteals are a class of vessels communi- 
cating with the mucous sunace of the intestines and 
carry a milky fluid contaming the nutritious part of 
the food in a dissolved state. The lacteals, in their 
passage through the mesentery, form clusters called 
mesenteric glands, in which the lacteal fluid under- 



230 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

goes an important change, by which it acquires many 

of the properties of blood. 

Browns Physiology and Hygietie, pp. 27 and 28, Art. 

34- 

121. The Intestines, or ahmentary canal, are di- 
vided into two parts — the small and large. The small 
intestine is about twenty-five feet in length and is di- 
vided into three portions, namely, the Duode7ium^ the 
Jejunum^ and the Ileum. The large intestine is about 
five feet in length, and is divided into three parts, 
namely, the Coecum, the Colon, and the Rectum. 
Cutters Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, p. 117, 

Art. 244. 

122. The Liver ^ a gland appended to the alimen- 
tary canal, is the largest organ in the system, and 
weighs about four pounds. It is situated in the right 
side, below the diaphragm, and is composed of several 
lobes. Its upper surface is convex; its under concave. 
This organ is retained in its place by several liga- 
ments. It performs the double office of separating 
impurities from the venous blood, and secreting a fluid 
(bile) necessary to chylification. 

Id., p. 122, Art. 254. 

123. The Pancreas is a long, flattened gland, ana- 
logous to the salivary glands. It is about six inches 
in length, weighs three or four ounces, and is situated 
transversely across the posterior wall of the abdomen, 
behind the stomach. 

Id., pp. 122 and 123, Art, 255. 

124. The human body is composed largely of com- 
binations of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen; 
hence, our food must contain these elements. 

First Lessons in Physiology, Hotze, p. 126. 

125. Food may be called that substance which, 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 231 

when within the body, supplies material which renews 
lost tissue or supports some process of life. 

Id., p. 126. 

126. Food consists of organic and inorganic mater- 
ials. 

Id., p. 129. 

127. Organic food comprises (i) nitrogenous sub- 
stances ; (2) fats; (3) compounds of carbon and hydro- 
gen such as sugar or starch. 

Id., p. 126. 

128. Inorganic food comprises water, and alkalies 

such as salt and phosphates. 

Id., p. 126. 

129. The changes wrought upon the food in the 
body are (i) digestion, or the proper preparation of 
food in the alimentary canal; (2) assimilation, or the 
conversion of food into blood and tissues ; (3) excre- 
tion, or the decomposition of food. 

Id., p. 327. 

130. Digestion comprises (i) mastication; (2) in- 
salivation; (3) deglutition; (4) stomach-digestion; (5) 
digestion in the intestines. 

Id., p. 127. 

131. The chief functions of the stomach are (l) to 
mix the food into a pulp; (2) to dissolve the nitrogen- 
ous portion of the food by means of the gastric juice. 

Id., p. 127. 

132. The chief conditions favorable to stomach- 
digestion are (i) a temperature of lOO F., nearly; (2) 
continual motion of the walls of the stomach; (3) the 
removal of thoroughly digested portions of food from 
the stomach; (4) previous perfect mastication and in- 
salivation of the food; (5) a moderate quantity of 
food; (6) regular intervals between meals; (7) no severe 
physical or mental exertion immediately before or af- 



232 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

ter a meal; (8) a tranquil mind; (9) bodily health; (10) 
favorable weather. 

Id., p. 127. 

133. The digestive fluids are (i) the saliva; (2) the 
gastric juice; (3) the bile; (4) the pancreatic juice; (5) 
the intestinal juice. 

Id.yp, 128. 

134. Functions of the saliva: 

(i) Softening the food; (2) Converting starch 
into sugar; (3) mingling the food with air. 

Id., p. 128. 

135. Functions of the gastric juice: Dissolving 
albuminous and other substances. 

Id., p. 128. 

136. Functions of the bile: 

(i) Absorbing waste material from the blood; 
(2) Dissolving fatty portions of food; (3) Stimulating 
the action of the intestines. 

Id., p. 128. 

137. Functions of the pancreatic juice: 

(i) Digesting fats; (2) Dissolving albuminous 
substances. 

Id., p. 128. 

138. That of digesting albuminous matter. 

Id., p. 128. 

139. Chyme is composed of (i) albuminous mat- 
ter; (!2) fatty matter; (3) starch; (4) gastric juice. 

Id., p. 129. 

140. After its union with bile, chyme is usually 
called chyle. 

Id., p. 129 

141. The object of absorption is (i) to supply the 
blood with fresh materials; (2) to remove waste parti 
cles. 

Id., p. 129. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 233 

142. Absorption is effected by blood-vessels (capil- 
laries) and by lacteals (or lymphatics.) 

Id., p, 129. 

143. Absorption by blood-vessels takes place chief- 
ly in the stomach and the intestinal canal. These ab- 
sorbed materials are conveyed to veins. 

Id., p. 129. 

144. Absorption by lacteals takes place in the 
small intestine by minute vessels called villi; these 
lead the absorbed chyle into the lacteals or lymphatic 
vessels, whence it is conveyed through the lymphatic 
glands to the thoracic duct, and thence thrown into 
veins. 

Id,, p. 129. 

145. The lymphatic system of the body has its 
ramifications throughout the body similar to the sys- 
tem of blood-vessels, from which it differs in this, that 
its fluid is lymph, and flows in only one direction. 

Id., p. 129. 

146. By the aid of respiration, the chyle is finally 
made into blood. 

Id., p. 129. 

147. The organs composing the Circulatory sys- 
tem are the Heart, Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries. 
Hitchcock's Anatomy and Physiology, p. 201, Art. 365. 

148. The Heart, or central engine of circulation, 
is located in the thorax or chest, resting by its lower 
surface on the diaphragm, and somewhat to the left of 
the middle line of the body. It is of a conical form, made 
of animal muscular fibre, the fibers crossing themselves 
in at least three directions. The heart is a double or- 
gan, one side being called the arterial and the other the 
venous, or left and right hearts, since the former re- 
ceives and propels the pure or arterial blood, while the 



234 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

latter circulates venous blood. Again, each of the 
two sides or hearts are divided into an auricle and a 
ventricle. Each of these four cavities will ordinarily 
contain about three fluid ounces, making the whole 
heart to contain nearly a pint. 

Id., pp. 20I, and 202, 

149. The Auricles differ in muscularity from the 
ventricles. Their walls are thinner, and of a bluish 
color. These cavities are a kind of reservoir, designed 
to contain the blood arriving by the veins. 

Cutter's Anatomy y Physiology and Hygie7te\p. 156, Art. 

336. 

150. The Ventricles not only have their walls 
thicker than the auricles, but they dijffer in their in- 
ternal structure. From the interior of these cavities 
arise fleshy columns, called columnae carneae. The walls 
of the left ventricle are thicker and stronger than 
those of the right. 

Id., pp. 156 and 157. 

151. The cavities in the right side of the heart are 
triangular in shape; those of the left, oval. 

Id., p. 157,^^^.338. 

152. Between the auricle and ventricle in the right 
side of the heart, there are three folds, or doublings, 
of thin, triangular membrane, called the tricuspid 
valves. 

Id., p. iS7y Art. 33S. 

153. Between the auricle and ventricle in the left 
side, there are two valves called the mitral. 

Id., p. iS7,Art. 338. 

154. The right ventricle of the heart gives rise to 
the Pulmonary artery; the left ventricle, to a large 
artery called the Aorta. 

Id., p. 157, Art. 339. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 235 

155. At the commencement of each of these arte- 
ries there are three folds of membrane, and from their 
shape, they are called semihmar valves. 

Id., p. 157- 

156. The valves are muscular fibers arranged in 
such a form that the blood can pass through them; but 
the contracting of the ventricle presses the blood 
back against the valve and closes it so that the blood 
cannot pass back again. The same contraction of the 
muscles of the ventricle forces the valves open out 
into the arteries, and the pressure of the blood in the 
artery closes the valve again. 

Hand-Book of Health, Loughborough, p. 64. 

157. The heart is supplied with arteries and veins, 
which ramify between its muscular fibres, through 
which its nutrient blood passes. It has, likewise, a few 
lymphatics, and many small nervous filaments from the 
sympathetic system of nerves. 

Cutte7'S Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, p. 157, 
Art. 340. 

158. The heart, in its natural state, exhibits but 
slight indications of sensibility, and although nearly 
destitute of the sensation of touch, it is yet, however, 
instantly affected by every painful bodily excitement, 
or strong mental emotions. 

Id., p. 157, Art, 340. 

159. The circulation consists of two parts : I. Great 
or systemic circulation ; 2. Lesser or pulmonary circu- 
lation. Commencing, we will suppose, with the left 
ventricle the blood is impelled through the semi-lunar 
valves into the aorta, and along its successive branches 
to the microscopic net-work of the capillaries, which 
ramify through all the tissues of the body. In the cap- 
illaries, the blood parts with its nutritive elements, be- 



236 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

comes venous, and is collected into the small veins, and 
flows through'their converging branches into the main 
trunks, the venae cavae, and finally into the right auricle. 
From the right auricle it is emptied through the tricus- 
pid valves into the right ventricle. This completes the 
great or systemic circulation. 

From the right ventricle the blood is impelled 
through the semi-lunar valves into the pulmonary art- 
ery, and along its branches to the capillaries of the 
lungs, to be exposed to the action of the air. From the 
pulmonary capillaries the blood enters in converging 
streams the pulmonary veins, which carry it to the 
left auricle, and this completes the lesser or pulmonary 
circulation. It is then emptied through the bicuspid 
valves into the left ventricle, where it started on its 
course. 
Class-Book of Physiology^ Comings, p. ^i, Arts. 75-y6. 

i6o. The force which propels the blood through the 
body lies in the substance of the heart. 

Its assistants in this are : ist, the elastic walls of 
the arteries; 2d, the muscular pressure upon some of 
the veins ; 3d, the contraction and expansion of the 
chest in breathing. 

First Lessons i}i Physiology, Hotze, p. 7/, Art. 2J. 

161. The movements of the heart consist of an alter- 
nate contraction and expansion. The former is called 
the systole, and the latter the diastole. During the di- 
astole the blood flows into the heart, to be expelled by 
the systoh. The alternation of these movements con- 
stitutes the beating of the heart. 

Fourteen Weeks in Physiology, Steele, p. no. 

162. The veins are the vessels which return the blood 
to the auricles of the heart after it has been circulated 
by the arteries through the various tissues of the body. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 237 

They are thinner and more delicate in structure than 
the arteries, so that when emptied of their blood, they 
become flattened and collapsed. 

Anatomy y Physiology and Hygiene, Qitte?, pp. i6o-i6iy 
Art. J46. 

163. The veins commence by minute radicles in the 
capillaries, which are everywhere distributed through 
the textures of the body, and coalesce to constitute 
larger and larger branches, till they terminate in the 
large trunks which convey the dark-colored blood di- 
rectly to the heart. 

Id., p. 161, Art. J ^6. 

164. The external, or cellular coat of the veins, is 
dense and firm, resembling the cellular tunic of the ar- 
teries. The middle coat is fibrous, like that of the ar- 
teries, but extremely thin. The internal coat is serous 
and also similar to that of the arteries. It is continuous 
with the lining membrane of the heart atone extremity, 
and with the lining membrane of the capillaries at the 
other. 

Id., p. 161, Aj-t. 34.8, 
16$. The arteries are the cylindrical tubes that con- 
vey the blood from the heart to every part of the sys- 
tem. 

Id., p. 158, Art. 34.1, 

166. They are dense in structure, and preserve, for 
the most part, the cylindrical form, when emptied of 
their blood, which is their condition after death. 

Id., p. 158, Art. 341. 

167. The arteries are composed of three coats. The 
external, or cellular coat, is firm and strong ; the mid- 
dle, or fibrous coat, is composed of yellowish fibres. 
This coat is elastic, fragile, and thicker than the exter- 
nal coat. The internal coat is a thin, serous membrane, 



238 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

which lines the interior of the artery, and gives it the 
smooth polish-which that surface presents. 

Id., p. 1^8, Art. j^^. 
l68. The capillaries constitute a microscopic net 
work, and are so distributed through every part of the 
body as to render it impossible to introduce the small- 
est needle beneath the skin, without wounding several 
of these fine vessels. 

Id., p. 163, Art. 350. 
i6p. The capillaries are remarkable for the uniform- 
ity of diameter, and for the constant divisions and com- 
munications which take place between them. 

Id., p. 16^, Aft. j^o. 

170. The capillaries inosculate, on the one hand, 
with the terminal extremity of the arteries, and on the 
other, with the commencement of the veins. They es- 
tablish the communication between the termination of 
the arteries and the beginning of the veins. 

Id., p. 163, Art. 351. 

171. The important operations of secretion and the 
conversion of the nutrient materials of the blood into 
bone, muscle, etc., are performed in these vessels. 

Id., p. 163, ^;f. 351.' 

172. Animal blood after standing for some time, con-, 
tains 1st, red and white corpuscles ; 2d, animal fibrine; 
3d, water ; and 4th, albumen. The first two form the 
clot, the remaining two the serum. The blood contains 
dissolved within it three gases : Carbonic acid, oxygen, 
and a small quantity of nitrogen. loor volumes contain 
about 50 volumes of these gases collectively. 

First Lessons in Physiology, Hotze, p. 70, Arts. 11 -18. 

173. The specific gravity of blood = i, very nearly ; 
its temperature = lOO'' R, nearly. 

Id., p. 70, A>t. 12. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 239 

174. The living body contains a quantity of blood of 
about one-tenth of its own weight. 

Id., p. 70, Art. 13. 

175. 

Ans. No. I. The use of the red corpuscles 
seems to be to convey oxygen from the lungs to all 
parts of the body. 

Id., p. 70, Art. 17. 

Ans. No. 2. The function of the red corpus- 
cles seems to be to convey oxygen to the tissues, and 
as this is the agent which is continually promoting 
the change or waste of the system, these corpuscles 
seem to be the great agents for disassimilating the tis- 
sues and the blood itself. The colorless or white cor- 
puscles seem to be the agents by which the repair of 
the body is effected, since they are greatly augmented 
in number when there is a large wound to be healed, 
or when there is a great amount of internal or exter- 
nal inflammation. 
Hitchcock' s Anatomy and Physiology, p. 228, Art. 403. 

176. The red blood corpuscles differ from the white 
in this, that they are smaller in size but larger in num- 
ber, and of a less changeable nature. 

First Lessons in Physiology, Hotze, p. 'JQ^ Art. 16. 

177. The following are four uses of the blood: 

1. It feeds the different parts of the body, 
which depend upon it for their maintenance. 

2. It provides the entire body with warmth 
and moisture. 

3. It carries oxygen to the tissues which need 
this gas. 

4. It gathers refuse matters throughout the 
body, and conveys them to places whence they may 
be discharged. Id., p. 71, Art. 19. 



2iO THE KORMA.L QUESTION BOOK 

178. The respiratory organs are the Lungs [lights,] 
the Trachea,, (wind-pipe,) the Bronchia, (sub-divisions 
of the trachea,) and the Air-Vesicles, (air-cells at the 
extremities of the bronchia.) 

Cutter's Anatomy y Physiology and Hygiene ^ p. 209, 
Art. 464. 

179. The Diaphragm, (mid-riff,) Ribs, and several 
Muscles, also aid in the respiratory process. 

# Id., p. 209, Art. 464. 

180. They are two conical-shaped organs, occupy- 
ing the cavity of the chest on each side of the heart, 
from which they are separated by a membranous par- 
tition, the mediastinum. Their color is pinkish gray» 
marked with black. Each lung is divided into two 
lobes by a long, deep fissure. In the right lung the 
upper lobe is subdivided by a second fissure. The air 
cells in each lobe communicate with each other, but 
not with those of another lobe. The lungs rest on the 
convex surface of the diaphragm. The root of each 
lung comprises the pulmonary artery and veins, and 
bronchial tubes, with the bronchial vessels and pul- 
monary plexuses of nerves. They are comprised of 
ramifications of the bronchial tubes, terminating in in- 
tercellular passages and air cells. It is supposed that 
there are not less than one hundred million air cells in 
the lungs. The mucous membrane of the lungs pre- 
sents an extent of surface of twenty-one thousand 
square inches; supposed to be greater than the entire 
surface of the skin of the body. AD the air tubes, 
vessels, and nerves of the lungs are closely knit to- 
gether into one general texture, by a delicate cellular 
tissue, and the whole mass, on each side, is enveloped 
in the serous membrane as an external coat. 
Hand-Book of Health, Lotcghborough, pp. 148 and 194. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 241 

i8i. The trachea is a cartilaginous tube about one 
inch in diameter, made up of from fifteen to twenty 
cartilaginous rings, commencing at a point nearly op- 
posite the fifth cervical vertebra, and extending as low 
as the second dorsal, or top of the sternum, where it 
divides into two bronchi extending to each lung. 
These segments of the trachea are not perfect rings, 
since they complete only about five-sixths of a circle, 
the remaining sixth consisting of smooth or involun- 
tary muscular fiber. 

Hitchcock's A natomy. Physiology and Hygiene, pp. 248, 
and2\% Art, 441. 

182. An air cell is a thin and elastic, funnel-shaped 
membrane of about ^ of an inch in diameter. 

Hotzes First Lessons in Physiology , p. 84, Art. 5. 

183. The capillaries in the lungs serve to expose 
the blood to the action of the air. This is done by 
(i) spreading it over a large surface, (2) spreading it 
in thin streams, (3) protecting it by merely a delicate 
cover. 

Id., p. 84, Art. 6. 

184. The main difference between arterial and ven- 
ous blood, is that the latter contains less oxygen but 
more carbonic acid gas than the former. 

Id., p. 84, Art, I. 

185. Respiration, or breathing, is that process by 
which air is taken into the lungs and expelled from 
them. 

Cutter's Anatomy, Physiology andHys^ene,p. 21^, Art. 
475- 

186. The object of respiration is, ist. To supply 
the system with oxygen, which is essential to the gen- 
eration of animal heat; 2nd. To convert the chyle 
into blood. This is done by the oxygen of the inspired 
air; 3rd. To relieve the organs of the body of the 



16 



242 THE K0R3IAL QUESTION BOOK. 

principal elements (carbon and hydrogen) that com* 
pose the old and useless particles of matter. 

Id,,p.2\^,ArL^^<^. 

187. 

"ist. The volume of air ordinarily present in 
the lungs is about twelve pints. 

2nd. The volume of air received by the lungs 
at an ordinary inspiration is one pint. 

3rd. The volume of air expelled from the lungs 
at an ordinary expiration is a little less than one pint. 

4th. Of the volume of air received by the lungs 
at one inspiration, only one-fourth part is decom- 
posed at one action of the heart. 

5th. The quantity of blood that flows to the 
lungs, to be acted upon by the air at one action of the 
heart, is two ounces, and this is acted upon in less 
than one second of time. 

6th. The quantity of blood in the whole body 
of the human adult, is twenty-five pounds avoirdupois 
or twenty pints. 

7th. In the mutual action that takes place 
between the air and blood, every twenty-four hours, 
the air loses thirty-seven ounces of oxygen, and the 
blood fourteen ounces of carbon." 

Id., p. 223, ArU^fil, 

188. Three points in common: 

1. Both operate by expansion and contraction. 

2. Both are involuntary organs; that is, on or- 
dinary occasions they act independently of the will. 

3. Both are indispensable to the maintenance 
of life. 

Three points of difference: 
I. The lungs contain air; the heart contains 
blood. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 243 

2. The lungs contain bronchial tubes, air-cells 
and blood-vessels; the heart has two parts, called the 
right and left side, each part being again divided into 
auricle and ventricle. 

3. The lungs purify, the blood; the heart pro- 
pels the blood through the body. 

FU'st Lessons in Physiology^ Hotze^ p. 86, Art. 16. 

189. The organs which produce animal heat are es- 
sentiaHy those employed in the act of breathing and 
the circulation of the blood. 

Hitchcock's Anatomy i Physiology and Hygiene^ p, 256. 
Art. 455. 

190. The theory which now is most readily ac- 
cepted makes the function of animal heat to be a 
chemico-vital one, or a chemical change (oxydization) 
dependent upon vital energy, being nearly analogous 
to the burning of a candle or the combustion of wood 
and coal in the stove. 

Id., pp. 256 and2S7y Art. 455. 
• 191. The temperature of the human system is 98^ 
F., and this it is invariably found to be in all cHmates 
and seasons when the individual is in perfect health. 

Id.,p.2S7,Art./^S7' 

192. The manner in which the body is kept at the 
uniform temperature of 98°, is a subject of deep inter- 
est. It is partly accomplished by radiation, since the 
body is ordinarily warmer than the air about it, and also 
partly by inhaling the cool air into the air passages. 

Id., p. 2SS, Art. 4S^. 

193. The Larynx in ail animals is the essential or- 
gan for the production of the voice. 

Id., p. zi^g, Art. 4S9' 

194. A cartilaginous tube, imperfectly conical, the 
base directed upwards, made up of distinct portions 
or segments sHghtly movable upon one another, and 



244 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

with a certain portion of the channel lengthened into 
a narrow and elongated opening, constitutes a larynx. 

Id., p. 259, ^r/. 459. 

195. Across the middle of the larynx is a trans- 
verse partition, formed by two folds of the lining mu- 
cous membrane, stretching from either side, but not 
quite meeting in the middle line. They thus leave, in 
the middle line, a chink or slit, running from the front 
to the back, called the glottis. The two edges of this 
slit are not round and flabby, but sharp and, so to 
speak, clean cut; they are also strengthened by a 
quantity of elastic tissue, the fibres of which are dis- 
posed lengthways in them. These sharp free edges of 
the glottis are the so-called vocal chords or vocal lig- 
aments. 

Physiology and Hygiene^ Huxley and Youmans^p. 205, 
Art, 223. 

196. The essential conditions of the production of 
the human voice are: a. The existence of the so- 
called vocal chords, b. The parallelism of the edges 
of these chords, without which they will not vibrate 
in such a manner as to give out sound, c. A certain 
degree of lightness of the vocal chords, without which 
they will not vibrate quickiy enough to produce sound. 
d\ The passage of a current of air between the par- 
allel edges of the vocal chords of sufficient power to 
set the chords vibrating. 

Id.y p. 204, Art. 222. 

197. The secretory organs are the Exhalants, Fol- 
licles, and the Glands. 

Cutter's Anatomy y Physiology and Hygiene ^ p. 192, 
Art. 415. 

198. The exhalants were supposed to be termina- 
tions of arteries or capillaries. The external exha- 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. S46 

lants terminate on the skin and mucous membranes; 
the internal in the cellular and medullary tissues. 

Id., p. 192, Art. 416. 

199. The follicles are small bag^s, or sacs, situated 
in the true skin and mucous membrane. The pores 
seen on the skin are the outlets of these bodies. 

Id., p. 192, Art. 417. 

200. The glands are soft, fleshy organs, and as va- 
rious in their structure, as the secretions which it is 
their function to produce. Each gland is composed 
of many small lobules united in a compact and distinct 
mass, that communicates by a small duct with the 
principal outlet, or duct of the organ. Every gland is 
supplied with arteries, veins, lymphatics, and nerves. 

Id., p. 193, Art. 418. 

201. Secretion is one of the most obscure and mys- 
terious functions of the animal economy. '^It is that 
process by which various substances are separated 
from the blood, either with or without experiencing any 
change during their separation." 

Id., pp. 193 and 194. 

202. The skin is the external covering of the body. 
It consists of two layers — the outside skin or the 
epidermis, and the inner one or dermis. 

First Lessons in Physiology, Hotze, p.^i. 

203. The epidermis serves to protect the sensitive 
lower skin or dermis, and to moderate the evaporation 
of fluid from the blood vessels. 

The dermis serves to invest the excretion glands; 
on its surface are the sensitive touch-corpuscles. The 
dermis is the deeper portion of the skin ; it is denser, 
more elastic and more tender than the epidermis. When 
cut it bleeds very freely, while the latter does not bleed 
at all. 

Id., //. 51-52. 



24e THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

204. The general properties of the skin are tough- 
ness, flexibility and elasticity. 

Id., p. 52, 

205. Owing to its toughness, it serves as the pro- 
tecting cover of the body ; in virtue of its flexibility, it 
shields the inner parts from violence ; and, on account 
of its elasticity, it yields readily to the movements of 
the body. It is also the principal organ of touch. 

Id,,p,52. 

206. The hair and nails are peculiar forms of the ep- 
idermis. The former is composed of horny scales and 
ceils, closely packed together. 

Id., p. 52. 

207. The secretion of the skin consists of two differ- 
ent fluids, one oily, the other watery. The oily one is 
secreted mostly in the scalp and the face, where the 
skin is largely supplied with hair. The other is called 
perspiration or sweat, the two terms being habitually 
taken synonymously, although there is this difference 
between them : perspiration is an insensible excretion, 
which evaporates on the skin ; sweat is a sensible secre- 
tion, composed of the same fluid as the other, but ap- 
pearing on the skin in the form of drops. 

Id.,pp. 52-53, 

208. Functions of the nervous system : 

1. It connects the different parts and organs of 
the body into an organic unit or whole. 

2. It animates or governs all movements of the 
muscles, whether voluntary or not. 

3. It regulates the temperature, nutrition and 
secretion of the body. 

4. It controls the processes of the organic life 
of the body. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 247 

5. It receives impressions which are generated 
by its terminal branches. 

6. It conveys impressions to different portions 
of the body. 

7. It can generate influences which no other or- 
gan or system can produce, such as sight, smell or taste. 
By means of this function, it puts the body in direct 
communication with the outer world. 

Id., p. 142. 

209. The nervous system, although a continuous 
substance, is conveniently subdivided into two systems : 
I, the cerebro -spinal system, and 2, the symathetic 
system. 

M,p.ij2, 

210. The cerebro-spinal system comprises the cere- 
bro-spinal axis, that is, the brain and the spinal cord, 
together with the cerebral and spinal nerves which em- 
anate from this axis. 

Id., p. 132. 

211. The sympathetic system contains the chain of 
sympathetic ganglia and the nerves which they give off. 

Id., pp. 132-13V 

212. The brain is a very soft substance, forming in 
man the enlarged upper terminus of the spinal cord. It 
is encased in the cavity of the cranium, which it fills, 
and from which it is difficult to be extracted entire. The 
brain substance of man generally varies in weight from 
40 to 60 ounces, and it is universally admitted that, as a 
rule, the quantity of brain substance corresponds to the 
intellectual powers of the individual, although it is be- 
lieved that the quality of this substance also plays an 
important part. The brain consists of cells and fibres 
which are rendered visible only by a good microscope. 

id., p. 133. 



248 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

213. The brain is divided into the large brain or 
cerebrum, the small brain or cerebellum — only one- 
eighth as large as the former — and the enlarged spinal 
cord or medulla oblongata. 

Id.^P' 133- 

214. The cerebrum and cerebellum consist each of 
two hemispheres, one on the right, the other on the left 
side. The surface of the cerebrum is covered with a 
great many foldings and windings or convolutions, ir- 
regular in form and direction ; these are separated from 
each other by deep furrows. The cerebellum also has 
convolutions, but they are of a more regular form and 
direction. 

Id,, p. 134.. 

215. The spinal cord is the downward continuation 
of the medulla oblongata. It is a soft substance con- 
tained in a bony cavity, formed by the vertebral column 
or back-bone. It extends nearly to the sacrum ; it is 
furrowed like the brain into two lateral, symmetric 
parts. Between these two parts — that is, in the centre 
of the cord and through its entire length — runs a fine 
canal, which originates in a point between the cerebel- 
lum and the medulla oblongata. 

Id.,p, 134. 

216. The cerebro-spinal nerves originate in both the 
brain and the spinal cord, whence they ramify and 
spread all over the body. They have the form of fibres 
and cells. 

Id., p. 134. 

217. The sympathetic system consists, like the brain, 
of cells and fibres. It is situated in front and at the 
sides of the spinal column; its ganglia or nerve cells are 
connected with one another, and with the spinal nerves 
by nerve cords. Id,y p. 133. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. U9 

2 1 8. The nervous system appears to be composed 
of two distinct substances — the gray and the white. In 
the cerebrum and cerebellum the white substance is 
contained within the gray; in the medulla oblongata 
and spinal cord the gray substance is enclosed in the 
white. The nervous fibres and tubes are white ; the 
cells are gray. 

7^.,/. ij6. 

219. The main functions ofthe cerebrum seem to be 
the manifestation ot intellectual powers and the will. 

M,/f. 143. 

220. The functions of the cerebellum seem to con- 
sist in the regulation of muscular movements. 

Id,, p. 143. 

221. The function of the medulla oblongata is to 
generate and control the motions of respiration and 
deglutition. 

Id., p. 143. 

222. The functions of the spinal cord are (i) to 
transmit sensitive impressions from its outer nerves to 
the brain; (2) to transmit the manifestations of the will 
from the brain to the spinal motor nerves ; (3) to ori- 
ginate nerve-force independently of the brain when- 
ever a stimulus is applied. 

Id, p. 143. 

223. The functions ofthe sympathetic system seem 
to be, to control the action of the alimentary canal, 
the glands, the blood-vessels and the heart. 

Id, p. 143. 

224. Nerves are generally endowed with motor and 
sensory properties, dnd others which serve the pur- 
pose of generating sensations. 

Id., p. 143. 

225. Sensory organs are tools, or instruments, cap- 



S60 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

able (i) of receiving impressions from the outer world 
and (2) of making us conscious of those impressions. 
They are merely the peculiarly shaped termination of 
a particular nerve. They are five in number, viz: 
that of sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. 

Id,, pp'. 144 and 145. 

226. The structure of the sense of touch consists in 
nerves which are spread out under the epidermis, and 
within the dermis or cutis. Id., p. 146. 

227. The structure of the sense of taste consists of 
papillae spread over the tongue and portions of the 
cavity of the mouth. These papillae are the termina- 
tions of certain nerves coming from the brain. 

Id., p. 148. 

228. The structure of the sense of smell consists in 

olfactory nerves, which are spread over the interior 

surface of the nasal cavity. 

Id.,p. 148. 

229. The structure of the sense of sight con- 
sists in two eye-balls, each of which comprises (i) three 
distinct coats, and (2) an optical apparatus. 

Id,,p, 163. 

230. The three coats of the eye-ball are: 
(i) The sclerotic coat ; 

(2) The choroid coat ; 

(3) The retina. 

Id,, p. 163. 

231. The optical apparatus is made up of : 

I. The Cornea; 2. The aqueous humor; 3. 
The crystalline lens ; 4. The vitreous humor. 

Id., p. 164. 

232. The structure of the sense of hearing consists 
of two ears, each of which comprises (i) the outer ear, 
(2) the middle ear, (S) the inner ear or labyrinth. 

Id.,p, 164. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. *51 

233. The outer ear is peculiarly adapted to collect 
and transmit waves of sound. 

Id., p. 165. 

234. The middle ear consists of (i) the external 
tube and (2) the drum or tympanum. These are sep- 
arated from each other by the tympanic membrane. 
The drum contains three small bones: the hammer, the 
anvil and the stapes. 

Id.,p, 165. 

235. The labyrinth or inner ear consists of the ves- 
tibule, three semi-circular canals, and the cochlea. The 
labyrinth is filled with liquids, in which are floating 
the terminal fibres and filaments of the auditory 
nerve. 

Id,,p, 165. 



QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRAC- 
TICE OF TEACHING- 



1. What does the Theory and Practice of Teach^ 
ing embrace? 

2. Of what does school economy treat? 

3. Define methods of instruction. 

4. What do you understand by methods of cul- 
ture? 

5. What could be treated of under the history of 
education ? 

6. What should be taken into consideration in 
making preparations for the school? 

7. What should be taken into consideration in 
selecting a site for a school-house? 

8. What do you consider to be the requisites of 
good school-grounds? 

9. State the objects of graded schools. 

10. What branches of knowledge should be taught 
in primary schools? 

11. Give a list of grammar school studies. 

12. What branches should be embraced in the 
high school course ? 

13. Upon what should the size of a school-house 
depend? 

14. What is the best form for school houses ? 

15. How should a school-house be warmed? 

16. How should a school-room be ventilated? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 263 

17. With what furniture should a school-house be 
provided? 

18. With what apparatus should schools be sup- 
pHed ? 

19. Of what use are school-records? 

20. What is meant by the organization of a 
school ? 

21. GivQ an outline of work preliminary to the 
organization of a school. 

22. What advantages will be gained by forming 
acquaintances of parents and pupils before the open- 
ing of the school? 

23. What should be the chief business of the 
teacher on the first day of school? 

24. Give directions that should be observed close- 
ly during the first day of school. 

25. How should a school be opened? 

26. How many aiid what grades should there be 
in the public schools? 

27. What are the advantages of a programme? 

28. What are the employments of a school? 

29. What are the objects of study? 

30. By what principles should incentives to study 
be tested? 

31. Name incentives to study which are of doubt- 
ful propriety. 

32. What are proper incentives to study? 

33. What are the objects of education? 

34. Since the recitation must embrace the objects 
of education, what may be considered the ends of 
the recitation ? 

35. How should the recitation be conducted ? 

36. What might be considered requisites for the 
recitation ? 



264 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

37. What preparation should the teacher make for 
the recitation? 

38. Why is it necessary to take exercise? 

39. Define school government. 

40. Under what heads may school government 
be embraced ? 

41. Define ethics. 

42. Define school-ethics. 

43. Name the important factors in the school. 

44. What may be considered as some of the most 
important quaHfications of the teacher ? 

45. What may be considered as the school-duties 

of pupils.^ 

46. Define discipline. 

47. Into how many and what species may school 
government be resolved? 

48. What may be considered as proper penalties? 

49. What may be considered as improper penal- 
ties.? 

y 50. What things should the teacher avoid? 

51. What things should every teacher perform? 

52. What is education? 

53. What is teaching ? 

54. What is learning ? 

55. In what divisions are the faculties of the mind 
comprised? 

56. What faculty comes first in the natural order 
of development.? 

57. How is the intellect developed ? 

58. What are the sources of knowledge? 

59. What is that knowledge called which man de- 
rives through the senses t 

60. What does this knowledge include? 

61. What is that knowledge called which is de- 
rived through Reason? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. S5ft 

62. What does this knowledge include? 

63. What should a system of education have for 
Its object? 

64. What conditions does teaching presuppose? 

65. What does education do for the individual? 
(^, What does education do for a people ? 

67. What are some of the most common evils of 
our schools ? 

()%. What should form the foundation for a system 
of teaching ? 

69. Give a classification of the elements of Peda- 
gogics. 

70. What other names are sometimes applied to 
these elements? 

71. Into what divisions is physical education di- 
vided ? 

72. Define diatetics. 

73. Define gymnastics. 

74. What is the special direction which the activ- 
ity of apprehending intelligence takes ? 

75. When is the perceptive faculty most active ? 
^6. When is the conceptive faculty most active? 
"^T. When is the thinking faculty most active? 
JZ, From the foregoing what epochs may be dis- 
tinguished ? 

79. What appears in the act of learning? 

80. Give the names of some of the most Import- 
ant educational reformers. 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY 
AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

1. All that relates to the Theory of Teaching or 
to its Practice may be embraced under the four follow- 
ing heads: — i. School Economy. 2. Methods of In- 
struction. 3. Methods of Culture. 4. The History 
of Education. 

Wickers ham's School Economy^ p. 5. 

2. Under the head of School Economy could be 
considered the preparation for, and the organization 
of, the school, and the conditions of its efficient work- 
ings. 

3. Under the head of Methods of Instruction 
an investigation could be made into the nature of 
knowledge and the methods of imparting it. 

Id.,p. 5. 

4. Under the head of Methods of Culture, the 
physical and mental constitution of man could be ex- 
amined, and an effort could be made to arrive at the 
best means of developing and strengthening it. 

Id.,p, 5. 
5. Under the head of History of Education, 
there could be related the success or the failure, the 
causes and effects, of the various educational systems 
and efforts which have characterized the past. 

7^.,/. 5. 



I. School-Sites. 


5- 


2. School-Grounds. 


6. 


3. School-Grades. 


7. 


4. School-Studies. 


8. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 267 

6. In making preparation for the School, the fol- 
lowing particulars must be regarded: 

School-Houses. 
School-Furniture. 
School- Apparatus. 
School-Records. 
Id., p. I. 

7. Several things must be taken into consider- 
ation in selecting a site for a school-house. The most 
important of them are: — 

1. Convenience of access. 

2. Suitability of the grounds and surroundings. 

3. Healthiness of the neighborhood. 

4. Beauty of the location. 

Id., p. 2. 
8. 

1. Grounds about a school-house should be 
thoroughly drained, so as to ensure dryness in all sea- 
sons. 

2. They should be leveled and sodded. 

3. They should be planted with trees for shade 
and with hardy shrubs for ornament. 

4. They should be provided with a house for 
fuel and separate closets for the accommodation of 
the pupils of both sexes. 

5. The grounds should be well supplied with 
water, 

6. They should be enclosed by a neat fence. 

Sypher's Art of Teaching School, p. 49. 
9. Some of the most prominent objects the friends 
of education have had in view, in advocating a system 
of graded schools, are the following: they economize 
the labor of instruction; lessen its cost; make teach- 
ing more effective; promote good order in school; 

17 



258 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

prompt the. ambition of pupils; provide instruction in 
the higher branches of learning ; and remove the 
necessity of children's leaving home to obtain a good 
education. 

Wicker sham's School Economy^ p. 24. 

10. Children in Primary Schools ought to be 
taught the names and the sounds of the letters of the 
Alphabet; and they ought also to receive careful in- 
struction in Pronouncing, Spelling, Defining, Element- 
ary Reading, Oral C omposition, Drawing and Writing 
and Elementary Arithmetic. 

Id.^ pp. 28 and 29. 

11. A Hst of Grammar School studies must em- 
brace Spelling, Defining, Reading, Composition, Ele- 
ments of Grammar, Geography, History of the United 
States, Drawing and Writing, Arithmetic, Oral and 
Written, Vocal Music. 

Id.^ pp, 29 and 30. 

12. The principal studies embraced in a High 
School Course are included in the following classifica- 
tion ; — Language, Inductive Sciences, Deductive Sci- 
ences, and History. 

Id., p. 30. 

13. The size of a school-house should mainly de- 
pend upon the number of pupils it is intended to ac- 
commodate. A house designed for an ungraded school 
to be taught by a single teacher should not contain less 
than nine hundred square feet. A house built to ac- 
commodate fifty to eighty pupils and provide them 
with a recitation-room, should contain not less than 
fifteen hundred square feet"; and one to accommodate 
from eighty to one hundred and twenty pupils, with 
two recitation-rooms, should have an area of something 
like two thousand square feet. 

Id., pp. 33 andl^. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 259 

14. The best form for school-houses in rural 
districts is rectangular, the door entering at the 
south end, and the north end being without windows. 
The ceiling must be from twelve to sixteen feet high, 
as it will add to the beauty of the room and to the 
health and comfort of its occupants. 

Id., p, 34. 

15. The common mode in which our school-houses 
are heated is very objectionable. If a stove must be 
placed in the room, it should be surrounded with a 
tin casing made to extend from the floor to about one 
foot above the top of the stove. There should be a 
door in the casing for putting in fuel; and a trunk for 
the conveyance of fresh air should start outside of the 
building, run under the floor, and communicate di- 
rectly with the stove. 

Id., pp. 40 and 4.1. 

16. All the windows of a school-room should be 
hung with pulleys, in order that they may be easily 
raised or lowered. If windows and doors are skilful- 
ly used, a tolerably good degree of ventilation can be 
secured. 

Id., p. 41. 

17. I. The furniture of the school house should be 
of the most approved and convenient pattern. 2. The 
desks should be so arranged as to enable all pupils to 
pass to and from their seats without creating confus- 
ion in any part of the room. 3. Every school should 
be provided with a library of reference-books. The 
most comprehensive English dictionary, a geographi- 
cal gazetteer, a biographical dictionary, a popular en- 
cyclopedia, sets of historical and physiological charts 
and outline maps should be considered indispensable 
articles in the furnishing of every school house. 4. 
The teacher's desk should be so constructed as to be 



260 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

well adapted to the uses for which it is intended. A 
plain business office desk, with drawers, shelves, clos- 
ets and book-rack, is perhaps the most convenient 
form. 

Sypher's Art of Teaching School, pp. 48 a?id /\.g. 

18. Among the articles of apparatus which should 
be found in all schools are the following: — a set of 
cards for teaching the Alphabet, Pronunciation, Spell- 
ing, and Elmentary Reading, with a stand to hang 
them upon; several sets of Letter Blocks, and a Chart 
of Elementary Sounds; Writing-Charts; Cards for 
Drawing, both large and small, to suit classes or indi- 
viduals, and a set of objects for Drawing; a Numeral 
Frame, and sets of Square and Cube Root Blocks; a 
Globe, a set of Outline Maps, and a Tellurian; Charts 
of History; a case of Minerals and Curiosities, a large 
collection of objects for Object Lessons, some pictures 
and engravings intended for the same purpose; a 
Thermometer. 

Wicker shames School Economy y pp. 46 and 47. 

19. To aid the teacher in his work; to give infor- 
mation to parents and school officers; to furnish edu- 
cational statistics; to exert a beneficial influence upon 
the pupils. 

Id., pp. 57, 58 ^«^ 59. 

20. School organization is a system of arrange- 
ment designed to secure constant employment, effici- 
ent instruction and moral control. It aims at provid- 
ing the means of instructing and educating the great- 
est number in the most efficient manner, and by the 
most economical expenditure of time and money. 

De Graff ^s School-Room Guide, p. 390. 

21. I. The young teacher should consider well his 
adaptation to a particular school before engaging it. 
2. He should know something of its peculiar difficul- 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 261 

ties, then weigh the question of his fitness to cope 
with them. 3. The teacher should make known his 
views and plans of teaching and management to school 
officers while negotiating. 4. The contract with 
school officers should always be in writing; it should 
bind the officers to the support of the teacher in all 
just measures. 5. The teacher should visit the dis- 
trict and make acquaintances of parents before open- 
ing of school. 

The Teacher's Hand-Booky Phelps^ pp. 78 and 79. 

22. Such visits will convince the people that the 
teacher takes an interest in his work and desires to do 
it well. 2. The teacher will be able to ascertain how 
many children from each family will be likely to attend 
school, wha<-. their ages and advancements are, and 
what books they have studied. 3. From the children 
the teacher can learn who were in the several classes, 
how many classes there were in the school, how the 
school was organized, and many other matters of de- 
tail that will assist him in making up a complete 
schedule of classes and studies, ready for use on the 
opening day. 

Art of Teaching School, Sypher, pp. 74 and y^. 

23. The chief business of the teacher on the first 
day is to win the respect of the pupils, and to estab- 
lish confidence between them and himself. 

Id., p. 76. 
24. 

1. Furnish something interesting for every pu- 
pil to do, from the commencement, all day long. 

2. Forestall disorder by establishing order at 
every movement. 

3. You will more readily interest the younger 



262 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

classes by engaging with the older classes first, than by- 
pursuing the opposite course. 

Holbrookes School Management^ p. i6y. 

25. I. School officers should be present and in- 
troduce teacher the first day ; this gives appearance of 
moral support to teacher, and produces salutary effect 
upon pupils. 2. Teacher should make brief, familiar 
and appropriate address to pupils ; should explain his 
relations to them, and theirs to him. 3. He should 
strive to make the first impressions pleasant. 4. Special 
preparation for first day indispensable ; go to work with 
a careluUy prepared plan. Leave nothing to the im- 
pulse of the moment. 5. Open school with some ap- 
propriate and pleasing general exercise. This may be 
a familiar song ; some vocal exercise, or a responsive 
reading of the Scriptures. 

The Teacher's Hand-Book^ Phelps, p. /p. 

26. There should not be more than four grades in 
the public schools. The primer and first reader should 
constitute the D grade; the second reader, the C grade; 
the third reader, the B grade; and the fourth reader, the 
A grade. The number of classes in each grade should 
not exceed four, and, by close classification, they need 
not exceed this number. 

De Graff's School-Room Guide^ p, jgj. 

27. Advantages of a programme : — 

1. Tt lessens the labor of teaching. 

2. It makes teaching more effective. 

3. It promotes good order. 

4. It cultivates systematic habits. 

5. It promotes the ambition of pupils. 

^^•» /• 393- 

28. The employments of the school may readily be 
arranged into three classes, as follows : 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 263 

I. Study. 
II. Recitation. 
III. Exercise. 

Wickersham's School Economy, p. iig, 
29. Knowledge, discipline, aspiration and effici- 
ency. Id., p. 120. 
30. 

1. Incentives to study ought to be continuous 
in their influences. 

2. Incentives to study ought to arise from the 
nature of the subject, and the circumstances connected 
with learning it. 

Id., p. 126. 

31. The principal incentives to study about the 
use of which a difference of opinion exists are — Prizes ; 
Merit-Marks ; Emulation ; Fear of Punishment ; Shame j 
and Ridicule. 

Id, p. 127. 

32. 

1. The Approbation of the Teacher. 

2. The Approbation of the Parents and Friends 
of the Pupil. 

3. The Approbation of Society. 

4. The Attainment of an honorable Position in 
the School. 

5. The Pleasure of overcoming Difficulties. 

6. The Gratification of Curiosity. 

7. The Desire of Knowledge. 

8. The Hope of Success in Life. 

9. The Enjoyment of pure ideal Creations. 

10. The Duty of Self-Perfection. 

11. The Satisfaction of doing Right. 

12. The Prospect of Heavenly Reward. 

Id.,p, i4g. 



264 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

33. I. The development of the faculties; 2. The 
acquisition of- knowledge ; 3. Its wise application to 
the uses of life. 

Phelps's Teacher s Hand-Book, p. 8^. 

34. The ends of the recitation may be summarily- 
stated to be : 

(a.) To develop the power of quick and accurate 
perception, of close observation, and generally, of clear 
and exact thought. 

(b.) Another object of the recitation is to culti- 
vate the power of concise and ready expression. 

(c.) A third object of the recitation is to deter- 
mine the extent and accuracy of the learner's attain- 
ments. 

(d.) Another object of the recitation, to increase 
the attainments of the class, to add to the knowledge 
that its members have acquired In their study hours. 

(e.) An object of the recitation to determine the 
pupils' habits and methods of study, and to correct 
whatever is faulty either in manner or matter. 

(f) The moral objects of the recitation are to 
cultivate sentiments of justice, kindness, forbearance, 
and courtesy. Id,, pp. 8^-86-8y. 

35. How to conduct a recitation : 

1. A brief reproduction of the preceding lesson. 

2. A brief review of the preceding lesson. 

3. Rehearsal and critical examination of the daily 



lesson. 
son. 

36- 



4. Recapitulation of the daily lesson. 

5. Adequate preparation for the advanced les- 

De Graff's School- Room Guide, p. jj^, 
I. A live, intelligent teacher. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 265 

2. Recitation seats. 

3. An abundance of blackboard. 

4. Apparatus, — such as globes, charts, maps, 
numerical frame, measures, etc. 

5. Reference books. 

6. Call bell. 

7. Proper ventilation. 

8. Equal temperature. 



/^.,A 343. 
I. General preparation, always special if pos- 



37. 

sible. 

2. Should have a knowledge of mental and 
moral philosophy. 

3. Should have an abstract of each day's work. 

4. Should know how to " use " books, but not 
abuse them. 

/^.,/. 343. 
38. 

1. Exercise is necessary to health. 

2. Exercise is necessary to strength. 

3. Exercise is necessary to study. 

Wicker sharns School Economy^ pp. 216 a7id 217. 

39. School government is the proper ordering of 
both the organic and individual action in the schools, 
so as to secure in the pupils the best possible develop- 
ment of the mind and discipline of the heart. 

JewelVs School Government^ p. 23. 

40. School government may be embraced under 
the following heads : 

1. School-Ethics. 

2. School-Retributions. 

3. School-Legislation. 

4. School-Administration. 

Wickershauis School Economy^ p. 230. 



866 THE NOKMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

V 41. Ethics is the science which treats of human 
rights and duties. 

Id., p. 111. 
42. School-ethics relates to the rights and duties 
of persons connected with the school. 

/</.,/. 231. 

43. 

1. The teacher. 

2. The general school-officers. 

3. The communities that found and support 
schools. 

4. The pupils. 

Id., pp., 2^1 and 2^2. 

44. First, common sense; second, knowledge of 
the branches; third, teaching power; fourth, govern- 
ing power; fifth, love of the work. 

Holbrookes School Management, p, I. 

45. The school-duties of pupils may be compre- 
hended under the following classification: 

1st. Duties to themselves. 

2d. Duties to one another. 

3d. Duties to the school-property. 

4th. Duties to the teacher. 

5th. Duties to the general school-officers. 

6th. Duties to the school as a whole. 

7th. Duties to visitors at the school. 

8th. Duties to society. 

9th. Duties to God. 

Wickers ham's School Economy, p. 232, 

46. The term Discipline is often taken in a broad 
sense, including all the appliances, studies and exer- 
cises of the student's life. In its more contracted 
sense, it is applied to the correction of particular er- 
rors and faults. 

Holbrookes School Management, p. 194. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 267 

47. School government is practically of three 
general species: 

1st. That oi force, 

2d. That of authority ; and 

3d. That of love. 

Jewell's School Government y p. 283. 

48. 

1. Privation of recitations. 

2. Privation of recess. 

3. Private reproof 

4. Reproof before a class, or before the school. 

5. Privation of position in a class. 

6. Daily and weekly reports. 

7. Notes to parents. 

8. Suspension. 

9. Expulsion. 

ID. Corporal punishment. 

11. Withholding friendship, 

12. Special penalties. 

Holbrookes School Management y pp. 211, 21.?, 213, 214 
215 and 216. 
49- 

1. Threatening individual or general punish- 
ment. 

2. Scolding at individuals or the school. 

3. Asking for excuses either written or oral. 

4. Whipping as it is generally practiced, i. e., 
as the common punishment for every kind of offense. 

5. Compulsory study, inflicted as a punish- 
ment. 

6. Any form of physical torture or mental dis- 
tress beyond the absolute demand of the case, any 
sudden or violent action, as throwing rulers or slap- 
ping the head, are not only highly improper but dan- 
gerously criminal. 



268 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

7. Any punishment whatever beyond the 
school-yard, 'or, indeed, any punishment in the school- 
room, for acts committed beyond the school-yard, I 
consider entirely improper and badly impolitic. 

Id., pp. 218 and 2ig. 
50. 

1. Guard against prejudice on entering a 
school. 

2. Do not allow pupils to direct their own 
studies. 

3. Do not attempt" to teach too many things. 

4. Never attend to extraneous business in 
school hours. 

5. Avoid making excuses to visitors for the 
defects of your school. 

6. Never compare one child with another. 

7. Avoid wounding the sensibilities of a dull 
child. 

8. Never lose your patience when parents un- 
reasonably interfere with your plans. 

9. Never make the study of the Bible a pun- 
ishment. 

10. Ride no "hobbies" in teaching. 
Pagers Theory and Practice of Teachings pp. 292, 294^ 
296, 297, 300, 301 and 302. 

51. 

1. Convince your scholars by your conduct 

that you are their friend. 

2. Take special care that the school-house and 
its appendages are kept in good order. 

3. Teach both by precept and by practice, the 
use of the decimal or American currency. 

4. When scholars do wrong, it is sometimes 
best to withhold immediate reproof, but to describe 
a similar case in general instruction. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 269 

5. Be accurate. 

6. Cultivate a cheerful countenance. 

7. Study to acquire the art of aptly illustrat- 
ing a difficult subject. 

8. Take advantage of unusual occurrences to 
make a moral or religious impression. 

Id., pp. 307, 309, 311, 312, 314, 315, 318 and 122. 

52. I call that education which embraces the cul- 
ture of the whole man, with all his faculties — subject- 
ing his senses, his understanding, and his passions to 
reason,' to conscience, and to the evangelical laws of 
the Christian revelation. 

De Fellenberg. 

53. To teach is to communicate knowledge — to 
give instruction. 

Rev. Wm. Bates, 
54. To learn is to acquire knowledge — to be in- 
structed. 

Id. 
$5. The faculties of the mind are comprised in 
three general divisions— the Intellect, the Sensibility 
and the Will. 

Sypher's Art of Teaching School^ p. 14. 

56. The first in order is the development of the 
intellect. 

Id., p. 15. 

57. The intellect is developed by the acquisition 
of knowledge. 

Id., p. 15. 

58. The sources of knowledge are: — the Senses 
and the Reason. 

Id., p. 18. 

59. The knowledge which man derives through 
the Senses is called empirical knowledge — the knowl- 
edge of experience. Id.^p. i8. 



270 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

60. This includes all that we know through the 
Senses — seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, smelling — 
and through emotional experiences. 

Id., p. 18. 

61. Knowledge of which reason is the source is 
called rational knowledge. 

Id., p. 18. 

62. Ideas of space, of time, of distance, the truths 
evolved by mathematical calculations, ideas of the ab- 
solute and the infinite, are attained through processes 
of reasoning, and cannot be reached by experience. 

Id., p. 18. 

63. A system of education should have for its ob- 
ject the guidance of the faculties of the mind in their 
efforts to reap in the harvest-fields of nature, so that 
they may first gather that which is first required, that 
they may store away that which is of most use, to the 
end that the mind may be strengthened by labor, that 
the act of receiving may increase the capacity to re- 
ceive, and that what requires greater strength and 
longer continued efforts to overcome and possess, may 
be left to be gathered at that period of life, when the 
requisite strength and power of endurance shall have 
been gained through a judicious system of exercise. 

Id., p. 22. 

64. Teaching presupposes three conditions: First, 
a degree of knowledge and capacity on the part of the 
pupil; second, a degree of knowledge and skill on the 
part of the teacher; and third, knowledge to be ac- 
quired. Id.,p,2i. 

65. (a) Education makes men more industrious ; 
(b) more trustworthy; (c) more active and systema- 
tic; (d) more cheerful; (e) more far-sighted; (f) more 
economical, as producers and preservers of property. 

The School and the School Master^ p. 152. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 271 

66. (a) It tends to make a people more orderly, 
and to substitute reflection for passion; (b) to pre- 
dispose them to respect lawful authority; (c) to indis- 
pose them to submit to oppression; (d) to render po- 
litical revolutions gradual and bloodless; (e) to qualify 
men for the exercise of more and more political power; 
(f ) to make refinement and civilization universal. 

Id., pp. 152 and 153. 

67. (a) Want of interest on the part of parents and 
others; (b) frequent change of teachers; (c) excessive 
multiplication of school districts; (d) diversity of class- 
books; (e) teachers not qualified; (f ) defective super- 
vision. • Id.^p. 197. 

6Z, The object-matter which must form the foun- 
dation for a system of teaching, will comprehend: 1st. 
The nature of the thing to be operated upon, or edu- 
cational capabilities) 2d. The nature of the instru- 
mentalities which may be used in operating upon it, or 
educational means; 3d. The manner of performing the 
operation, or educational methods. 

WickershanC s Methods of Instruction^ p. 34. 

69. The classification of the special elements of 
Pedagogics is very simple; (i) the Physical, (2) the 
Intellectual, (3) the Practical. 

Rosenkranz's Pedagogics as a System., p. 27. 

70. We sometimes apply to these the words Ortho- 
biotics; Didactics, and Pragmatics. 

Id., p. 27. 

71. Physical education, as it concerns the repair- 
ing, the motor, or the nervous activities, is divided into 
[i] Diatetics, [2] Gymnastics, [3] Sexual Education. 

Id., p. 29. 

72. Diatetics is the art of sustaining the normal 
repair of the organism. 

Id.yp, 29. 



272 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

73. Gymnastics is the art of systematic training 
of the muscular system. 

74. The special direction which the activity of 
apprehending intelligence takes are: [i] Perception, 
\2\ Conception, [3] Thinking. 

Id.,p.Z7, 

75. The Perceptive faculty is most active in the 
infant. 

Id., p. 37. 

76. The Conceptive faculty is most active in the 
child. 

Id.,P'l7' 

77. The Thinking faculty is most active in the 
youth. 

Id.,p,Z%. 

78. Thus we may distinguish an intuitive, an 
imaginative, and a logical epoch. 

Id.,p.3S. 

79. In the act of learning there appears (i) a me- 
chanical element, (2) a dynamic element, and (3) one 
in which the dynamic again mechanically strengthens 
itself. 

/^/.,/. 57. 

80. Ascham, Montaigne, Ratich, Milton, Comen- 
ius, Locke, Rosseau, Basedow, Pestalozzi, Jacotot and 
Herbert Spencer. 

Essays on Educational Reformers, Quick^ pp. II, 12, 
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19. 



QUESTIONS ON MATHEMATICAL GE- 
OGRAPHY. 



1. Define Geography. 

2. How is Geography divided ? 

3. Define Mathematical Geography. 

4. What is the form of the Earth ? 

5. Give proofs of its rotundity. 

6. What is the diameter of a sphere ? 

7. What is the circumference of a sphere ? 

8. Give the equatorial diameter of the earth. 

9. Give its polar diameter. 

10. Give its circumference. 

11. What is its extent of surface ? 

12. What its solid contents in miles ? 

13. What is its weight ? 

14. What is its specific gravity ? 

15. What is the horizon ? 

16. What points of the horizon are called Cardi- 
nal Points ? 

17. What are the Semi-cardinal Points ? 

18. What position does the earth occupy in the 
universe ? 

19. How many and what bodies compose the So- 
lar System .'' 

20. What relative position does the earth occupy 
in the Solar System.? 

1. *" 



274 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

21. What is the distance [of the earth from the 
sun ? 

22. Has the Sun any other motion than its move- 
ment through space ? 

23. To what theory has this uniformity of direc- 
tion of the movements of the planets and Sun given 
rise ? 

24. What is the axis of the Earth ? 

25. What are the poles ? 

26. Which is the North pole ? 

27. What is the motion of the Earth on its axis 
called ? 

28. Give proofs of the earth's rotation. 

29. Explain how falling bodies prove it. 

30. Having established that the earth rotates, 
what considerations indicate that it rotates from west 
to east ? 

31. What is the exact time of a rotation? 

32. What is the velocity of rotation? 

33. Where is the velocity least ? 

34. To what phenomenon does the rotation of the 
earth give rise ? 

35. What is the great circle called which separ- 
ates the dark side of the earth from the light.? 

36. What is the Earth's motion around the Sun 
called ? 

37. What is the exact time of a complete revolu- 
tion? 

38. Define a siderial year. 

39. Define a tropical year. 

40. Which value is taken for the length of the 
civil year? 

41. What is the extent of the earth's orbit ? 

42. At what season is the earth nearest the sun? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 278 

43. Explain why it is nearer at one time than at 
another. 

44. When is the earth at its perihelion? 

45. When at its aphelion? 

46. At what velocity does the earth move in its 
orbit? 

47. What governs the velocity of the different 

planets? 

48. What causes the continued revolution of the 
earth and other planets? 

49. How are centrifugal and centripetal forces 
now regarded ? 

50. What gives the earth's orbit its elliptical 
shape ? 

51. What produces the change of seasons? 

52. Define circle as used in Geography. 

53. How may the circles of the earth be divided? 

54. Define Great and Small Circles. 

55. Define circles of Position, or Measurement. 

56. Define Climatic Circles. 

57. Name the Circles of Position. 

58. Name the Climatic Circles. 

59. What is the number of degrees in a circle ? 

60. Define Latitude. 

61. What is the length of a degree of Latitude ? 

62. Are degrees of Latitude of equal length on all 
parts of the globe ? 

63. On what is Latitude measured? 

64. What is the basis of the Geographic mile? 

65. Define Longitude. 

66. Are degrees of Longitude all of equal length? 
^J. On what is Longitude measured } 

68. What is the greatest extent of Longitude? 

69. What places have no longitude ? 

70. What is the greatest extent of Latitude? 



«« THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

71. What places have no Latitude ? 

72. What are prime meridians? 

73. Where are these usually located ? 

74. What computations of Longitude and time 
may be made, having difference of Longitude or time 
between places given? 

75. Explain why. 

^6. Give a diagram showing the time at the same 
moment at different places, marked at quadrant's dis- 
tances. 

'jy. Define quadrant. 

78. What are the Tropics? 

79. Where are they located? 

80. What are the Polar Circles? 

81. Where are they located } 

82. Why are these circles thus located? 

83. Into what Zones do the Climatic Circles di- 
vide the earth? 

84. Locate the Torrid Zone. 

85. Locate the Temperates. 
%6, Locate the Frigids. 

87. What is the width of the Torrid Zone? 

88. What is the width of the Temperates? 

89. What is the width of the Frigids ? 

90. What is the Ecliptic ? 

91. What is the degree of inclination of the earth's 
axis to the plane of the Ecliptic? 

92. Under what circumstances would there have 
been no change of seasons? 

93. In what case would the change of seasons 
have been greater than it now is ? 

94. What are the Equinoxes? 

95. How many and what are they called ? 

96. On what days of the year do they occur? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 277 

97. What are the Equinoctial Points? 

98. What are the solstices ? 

99. How many, and what are they called ? 
100. On what days of the year do they ocGur ? 
lOi. What are the Solstitial Points? 

102. Why is the Ecliptic so called? 

103. On what does the relative length of the day 
and night depend ? 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON MATHE- 
MATIC AL GEOG RAPHY. 

1. Geography (from the Greek geographia — de- 
rived from \^, the earth, and Ypd(/)6CiJ, to write) is the 
science that treats of the earth. In its widest sense, it 
embraces all that we know of the globe, its form, mag- 
nitude, and motions. The successive changes it has 
undergone, its present condition, its structure, products 

and inhabitants. 

Cornelias Physical Geography ^ p. i. 

2. Geography is divided into three branches; 
Mathematical, Political and Physical. 

Id., p, I. 

3. Mathematical Geography is the term given to 
certain facts of astronomy and mathematics which are 
used in geography. The astronomical part treats of 
the earth as a planet of the solar system, — with its size, 
motions, etc.; the mathematical part teaches us how to 
represent the earth's surface on maps and globes, 

Swinton's Complete Course in Geog., p. 7. 

4. The shape of the earth is that of a sphere, or 
globe, slightly flattened at the Poles; in exact language, 
an Oblate Spheroid. Id,, p, 2. 

5. 

I. The Continual Circumnavigation of the earth. 

This shows that the earth is round from East to West 

at least. Id-y p. 2, 

S78 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 279 

II. Appearance of Approaching Objects. If the 
earth were flat, as soon as an object appeared on the hor- 
izon, we would see the upper and lower parts at the 
same time ; but if it were curved, the top parts would 
first be seen. Now, when a ship is coming into port, we 
see first the topmasts, then the sails, and finally the hull; 
hence the earth must be curved ; and, since the appear- 
ance is the same, no matter from what direction the 
ship is approaching, we infer that the earth is evenly 
curved, or spherical. 

III. The Circular Shape of the Horizon. The 
horizon, or the line that limits our view when nothing 
intervenes, is always a circle. 

IV. The Shape of the Earth's shadow. The shad- 
ow which the earth casts on the moon during an eclipse 
of the moon, is always circular, and as only spherical 
bodies in all positions can cast such shadows, we infer 
that the earth is spherical. 

V. Measurement. The shape of the earth has 
been accurately ascertained by calculations based on the 
measurement of an arc of a meridian. We therefore not 
only know that it is spheroidal, but also the exact 
amount of its oblateness. 

VI. Great Circle of Illumination. The shape of 
the great circle of illumination, or the line separating 
the portion of the surface lighted by the sun's rays from 
that in the shadow, is another evidence of the rotundity 
of our earth. 

Houston' s Physical Geography y p. ii, 

6. A diameter of a sphere is any straight line 
drawn through the centre from surface to surface. 

Harper's School Geography, p. 2. 

7. The circumference of a sphere is the greatest 
distance around it. Id.j p. 2, 



380 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

8. 7>925.65 miles. 

Guy of s Physical Geog.^ p. 6. 
9' 7f^99'^7 miles. 

Id.,p, 6. 
Id., p, 6. 



10. 24,899 miles. 

11. 196,900,278 square miles. 

12. 260,000,000,000 cubic miles. 



Id., p. 6. 
1 3« 5 ,85 2,000,000,000,000 of tons, a weight of which 
our minds can form no conception. 

Id.y p. 6. 

14. The specific gravity of the globe is found to be 
about 5f ; that is, it would require 5f globes of water 
of the same size, to balance the weight of the earth. 

Id., p. 6. 

15. The horizon is that circle upon which the earth 
and sky appear to meet. 

Harper's School Geog., p. 2, 

16. North, South, East and West, are called cardi- 
nal points. 

Id.,p, 2, 

17. North-east, North-west, South-east and South- 
west, are called semi-cardinal points. 

Eclectic Series, No. j, p. 6, 

18. The earth is one of a group of small non-lumin- 
ous bodies which revolve around the sun, accompany 
him through space, and reflect his light. 

Guy of s Physical Geog., p. 2. 

19. The solar system comprises the sun, eight large 
bodies called planets, and as far as is now known about 
one hundred and seventy-five smaller bodies called 
planetoids, or asteroids, besides numerous comets and 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 281 

meteors. Some of the planets have bodies called moons 
or satellites moving around them. These also belong 
to the solar system. 

Houston's Physical Geog.^ p. 8. 

20. The earth belongs to the group nearest the sun 
and ijB third from the sun in position. 

Guy of s Physical Geog., p. j, 

21. Nearly 92,000,000 of miles. 

22. The sun, all the primary planets, and their sat- 
ellites so far as known, rotate from west to east. 

23. To a theory by Laplace called the nebular 
hypothesis, which assumes that originally all the mater- 
ial of which the solar system is composed, was scattered 
throughout space in the form of very tenuous matter 
called nebula. It being granted that this matter began 
to accumulate around a centre, and that a motion of rota- 
tion was acquired, it can be shown on strict mechanical 
principles, that a system resembling our own might be 
evolved. 

Houston's Physical Geography, p, 75. 

24. The central line of rotary motion is called the 
axis of rotation. 

Guy of s Physical Geog., p. j. 

25. The extremities of the axis are called the poles. 

M,p.j. 

26. The North Pole is the pole nearest the North 
Star. 

Swinton's Complete Course in Geography^ p.j, 

27. It is called its rotation. 

Houston's Physical Geog., p. i^. 
28. 

I. A direct proof of the earth's rotation is de- 
rived from observations of a pendulum. If a heavy ball 
be suspended by a flexible wire from a fixed point, and 



282 THE NORMAl. QUESTION BOOK. 

the pendulum thus formed be made to vibrate, its vibra- 
tions will all be performed in the same plane. If instead 
of being suspended from a fixed point, we give to the 
point of support a slow motion of rotation around a ver- 
tical axis, the plane of vibration will still remain un- 
changed. Suppose then a heavy ball to be suspended 
by a wire from a fixed point directly over the pole of 
the earth and made to vibrate; these vibrations will con- 
tinue to be made in the same invariable plane. But the 
earth meanwhile turns round at the rate of 15° per hour; 
and since the observer is unconcious of his own motion 
of rotation, it results that the plane of vibration of the 
pendulum appears to revolve at the same rate in the op- 
posite direction. 

II. A second proof of the earth's rotation is de- 
rived from the motion of falling bodies. 

Loomis's Treatise on Astronomy^ pp. J2-J4.. 

29. If the earth had no rotation upon an axis, a 
heavy body let fall from any elevation would descend 
in the direction of a vertical line. But if the earth 
rotates on an axis, then since the top of a tower de- 
scribes a larger circle than the base, its easterly motion 
must be more rapid than the base, and if a ball be 
dropped from the top of a tower, since it already has 
the easterly motion which belongs to the top of the 
tower, it will retain this easterly motion during its 
descent, and its deviation to the east of the vertical 
line will be nearly equal to the excess of the motion of 
the top of the tower above that of the base during the 
fall. 

Id., p. 34. 

30. The sun and stars appear to move in an op- 
posite direction, from east to west, or as it is common- 
ly expressed "rise in the east" and **set in the west." 



THE NOEMAL QUESTION BOOK. ^ 283 

This apparent motion of the sun and stars is caused 
in reality by the rotation of the earth. 

Warren's Neiv Phys. Geog., p. 8. 

31. The time of a complete rotation is 23 hours, 56 
minutes, 4.09 seconds. 

Houstoiis Physical Geog.^ p. 14. 

32. The velocity of rotation at any point on the 
equator is about 1,042 miles per hour. 

Id., p. 14. 

33. At points distant from the equator the velo- 
city diminishes, until at the poles it is nothing. 

Id., p. 14. 

34. The alternation of day and night is owing to 
the earth's rotation which brings each point of its 
surface from darkness to light, and from light to dark- 
ness. 

Come IPs Phys. Geog., p. 6. 

35. The great circle which separates the dark side 
of the earth from the light side is called the Circle of 
Illumination. Id,^ p. 6. 

36. Its revolution. 

Houston s Phys.y p. 15. 

37. The exact time of a complete revolution is 365 
days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 9.6 seconds. 

Houston's Phys. Geog. p. 15. 

38. The exact time of a revolution is called a sid- 
ereal year. 

Id., p. 15. 

39. The tropical year, or the time from one March 
equinox to the next, is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 
49.7 seconds. 

Id, p. 15. 

40. The latter value is the one generally given for 
the length of the year, being nearly 365^ days. 

Id., p. 15. 



284 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

41. 577-OCO,oco miles. 

Id., p. 15. 

42. About January ist. 

Id., p. 15. 

43. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse. The sun 
is in one of the foci and as this is not in the centre of 
the orbit, the earth must be nearer to the sun at some 
parts of its revolution than at others. 

Id.,p, 15. 

44. When the earth is in that part of its orbit 
which is nearest to the sun, it is said to be at its peri- 
helion. 

Id., p. 15. 

45. When in that part of its orbit farthest from 
the sun, it is at its aphelion. 

Id., p. 15. 

46. Its mean velocity may be taken as equal to 
about 19 miles a second, which is nearly sixty times 
faster than the speed of a cannon-ball. 

Id., p. 15. 

47. While the circumference of the orbits of the 
planets increase with their distance from the sun, their 
velocity at the same time diminishes, and the time of 
revolution, or length of year, increases correspondingly, 

Guy of s PJiys. Geog., p. 5. 

48. The earth's movement through space is caus- 
ed solely by a /r^>^/27^/<?r<;^ imparted to it when it 
first began its separate existence — probably when first 
separated from the nebulous sun. From its inertia it 
would move for an indefinite time in one direction, 
but, by the sun's attraction it is constantly changing 
its direction by falling toward the sun; and thus is 
produced the curved shape of its orbit. 

Houstojis Phys. Geog.^ p. 10. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 285 

49. Centrifugal and Centripetal forces, as such 
have no real existence, save in the projectile force 
and in the attraction of the sun. It is inertia alone 
that keeps the earth moving and the sun's attraction 
that modifies the motion. The earth has no power 
whatever, in itself, to move either towards or from the 
sun. An entire abandonment of the idea of centre- 
seeking or centre-JlyiJig forces y will greatly simplify the 
explanation of the earth's motion of revolution. 

Id.yp. 10. 

50. It is owing to the attractive influence of the 
neighboring planets, which modity the effect of the 
sun's attraction. 

Id.,J>. 15. 

51. The change of seasons is produced by the 
revolution of the earth, together with the inclination 
and constant parallelism of the axis. 

Id., p. 16. 

52. The term Circle, in geographical science, is 
used in a restricted sense. The Geographical Circles 
are notplanes cutting the terrestrial globe, but simply 
lines encircling it. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog.ypp. 6 and 7. 

53. Into Great Circles and Small Circles and into 
Circles of Position, and Climatic Circles. 

Id.y pp, 6 and 7. 

$4. Those which bisect the surface of the sphere 
are called Great Circles. All others are Small Circles. 

Id., p. 7. 

55. Circles of position include the Equator, a great 
circle encompassing the globe from east to west, mid- 
way between the poles; Meridians, great circles en- 
compassing the globe from north to south, intersect- 
ing at the poles, and crossing the Equator at right 
angles; and Parallels, small circles parallel to the Equa- 



286 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

tor. They -are used in determining the geographical 
position of places. 

Id., p. J. 

56. They are four parallels which serve not only 
to determine position, but also to mark certain im- 
portant climatic boundaries, hence they may be dis- 
tinguished as Climatic Parallels. 

Id., p. 7. 

57. They are the Equator, the Meridians, and the 
Parallels. 

Id.,p.y. 

58. The Tropics, the Polar Circles and the Eclip- 
tic. 

Id.,p.y. 

59. Every circle, whether great or small, is divided 
into 360 equal parts, called degrees. 

Eclectic S Cities School Geog., No. 2>, p. 7. 

60. The Latitude of a place, is the distance of its 
parallel from the equator. 

Id., p. 7. 

61. 691^ miles, or gfg- part of the circumference of 
the earth. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog., p. 7. 

62. Near the poles the degrees are slightly longer, 
owing to the oblateness of the sphere. 

63. Upon the Meridians. 

Id, p. 7. 
. 64. One minute of longitude at the equator con- 
stitutes the geographical or nautical mile used in reck- 
oning distances at sea. 

Id., p. 7. 
65. The Longitude of a place, is the distance of its 
meridian from the prime meridian. 

Eclectic Series School Geography, No. 3, /. 7, 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 287 

66. The length of the degrees of longitude de- 
creases as we recede from the equator, the parallels 
becoming smaller the nearer we approach the poles. 

Id., p. 7. 

6y. Upon the parallels and the equator. 

6S. There are 180° of west longitude and 180° of 
east longitude. 

M, p. 7. 

69. At the poles where all the meridians meet, 
longitude ceases. 

Id., p. 7. 

70. There are 90° of north latitude, and 90° of 
south latitude. 

Id., p. 7. 

71. Places on the equator have no latitude. 

Harper's School Geog., p. 3. 

72. The meridian from which longitude is reck- 
oned is called the prime meridian. 

Houston's Phys. Geo^., p. 13. 

73. For each nation it is generally the meridian of 
its own capital. 

Id., p. 12. 

74. If the difference in time marked at two places 
be known, their difference in longitude can at once be 
ascertained, and vice versa. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 7. 

75. Since any given point on the earth's surface 
passes through 360° of longitude — one entire rota- 
tion — im 24 hours, it must pass through ^^^ , or 15°, in 
one hour; and 1° in ^ of an hour, or four minutes. 

Id., p. 7. 



288 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 



76, 
180® 



West. 
90© 



0« 



East. 
90® 



180© 



12 A. M. 

Monday, or mid- 
night of Sunday. 



6 A.M. 

Monday. 



Noon 6 P. M. 
of Monday. Monday. 



12 P. M. 
Midnight of 
Monday. 

Guyot's Physical Geog., p. 7. 

77. A Quadrant is one quarter of a circle, or 90°. 

Mattison's High School Astronomy^ p, 22. 

78. The Tropics are parallels which mark the 
highest latitude which receives the vertical rays of the 
sun. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 7. 

79. They are located 23|-° from the equator. 

80. They are parallels which mark the limits of 
illumination when the sun is vertical at the tropics. 

Id., p. 7, 

81. They are located 23|-° from the poles. 

Id., p. 7. 

82. Their position is fixed by the inclination of 
the earth's axis 23^ degrees towards the plane of its 
orbit. 

Id., p. 7^ 

83. The Zones enclosed by these circles are: one 
Torrid Zone, two Temperate Zones, and two Frigid 
Zones. 

Swin ton's Complete Course in Geog., p. 7. 

84. The Torrid Zone is between the Tropic of 
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. 

Id, p. 7. 

85. The Temperates lie between the Tropics and 

the Polar Circles. 

Id., p. 7. 

86. The Frigids lie between the Polar Circles and 
the Poles. Id., p. 7. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 2b» 

S^. The Torrid Zone is 47°, (== about 3,250 miles) 
in breadth. 

Id., p. 7. 

88. Each Temperate Zone is 43° (= nearly 3,OOC 
miles)in breadth. 

Id.,p,7, 

89. Each Frigid Zone is 23I-® (= 1,625 miles) in 
width. 

Id., p. 7, 

90. The Ecliptic is a great circle whose plane co- 
incides with that of the earth's orbit. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog,, p» 7, 

91. 23^° toward the plane of the Ecliptic. 

Id.,p,7. 

92. If the earth's axis had been perpendicular to the 
plane of its orbit, the equator would have coincided with 
the ecliptic ; day and night would have been of equal 
duration throughout the year, and there would have 
been no diversity of seasons. 

Loomis's Treatise on Astronomy, p. 6j. 

93. If the inclination of the equator to the ecliptic 
had been greater than it is, the sun would have receded 
farther from the equator on the north side in Summer, 
and on the south side in Winter, and the heat of Sum- 
mer as well as the cold of Winter would have been more 
intense; that is the diversity of the seasons would have 
been greater than at present 

Id.,p,6j, 

94. They are the times of the year at which the 
sun's vertical rays fall exactly on the equator. 

95. There are two equinoxes, the vernal and au- 
tumnal. 

Loomis's Treatise on Astronomy , p, 5p. 



290 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

96. The vernal equinox takes place on the 20th of 
March and the autumnal on the 22d of September. 

Id., p. jp. 

97. The ecliptic intersects the equator at two points 
diametrically opposite to each other. These are called 
the equinoctial points. 

Id., p. 59' 

98. The solstices are the times at which the verti- 
cal rays of the sun reach their farthest northern or 
southern limit, and fall vertical on one or the other of 
the tropics. 

Houston's Phys. Geog.^ /. //. 
pp. There are two solstices called the Summer sol- 
stice, and the Winter solstice. 

Id., p. 17. 
100. The Summer Solstice takes place on the 21st 
of June, and the Winter Solstice on the 21st of Decem- 
ber. 

Id., p. 17. 
lOi. They are the points of the ecliptic which are 
midway between the equinoxes. 

Loomis's Astron., p. jp. 

102. This circle is so called because solar and lunar 
eclipses can only take place when the moon is very near 
its plane. 

Id.,p.sg. 

103. Whenever more than half of either the north- 
ern or southern hemisphere is illumined by the rays 
of the sun, the length of the day in that hemisphere will 
exceed that of the night, in proportion as the length of 
the illuminated part, measured along any of the paral- 
lels, exceeds that of the dark part. 

Houston's Phys. Geog.,p. 18, 



QUESTIONS ON POLITICAL GEOG- 
RAPHY. 



1. Define Political Geography. 

2. Under what heads may this division of Geog- 
raphy be discussed.? 

3. What Political divisions does the continent of 
North America comprise ? 

4. Of what races does the population of the 
United States consist? 

5. What is the number of the population of the 
United States? 

6. What are the leading forms of industry in the 
different localities ? 

7. What are the leading exports and imports of 
foreign commerce? 

8. With what countries is the commerce of the 
United States? 

9. What are the divisions of British America? 

10. What are the most important provinces of 
British America? 

11. In what does their source of wealth consist? 

12. What are its forms of industry? 

13. How does its commerce rank? 

14. How is the Dominion governed? 

15. What is the number of its population and 
what is its state of advancement? 

16. Locate the Northwest Territory, 



292 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

17. What, difference exists between the popula- 
tion of Greenland and Iceland? 

18. What is the character of the population of 
Mexico? 

19. What are their forms of industry? 

20. What their sources of wealth? 

21. Of what .divisions does Central America con- 
sist? 

22. What gives importance to this country? 

23. To whom do the West Indies belong? 

24. How many and what are the political divis- 
ions of South America? 

25. What is the number of inhabitants of South 
America? To w^hat races do they belong? 

26. What is the state of commerce of South 
America? 

27. Which is the most important country in South 
America? 

28. Which is the largest city in the Southern 
Hemisphere? 

29. What is the state of civilization of South 
America? 

30. What is true of the natural resources of 
Brazil? 

31. What are its principal industries? 

32. Which is the most progressive of the Spanish 
American republics? 

33. Name the British Isles. 

34. What does the British Empire comprise? 

35. What is the form of government of the Brit- 
ish Empire? 

36. What is the rank of England in the United 
Kingdom? 

37. In what do its resources consist? 

38. What is the commercial rank of England? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 293 

39. What are the resources of Wales? 

40. What are the employments of the Scotch? 

41. What difference exists between the people of 
the highlands and the lowlands ? 

42. For what is Glasgow noted? 

43. Describe Ireland. 

44. What are its political divisions? 

45. What are its important cities and for what is 
each noted? 

46. How many and what are the Empires of 
Europe? 

47. How many and what are its Republics? 

48. How many and what are its Kingdoms ? 

49. Which of the latter are Absolute Monarchies? 

50. What is the total population of Europe? 

51. Of what race does it consist and what 
branches does it include? 

52. What countries occupy the Scandinavian Pe- 
ninsula ? 

53. What are the exports of Norway: 

54. What the exports of Sweden? 

55. What is the most northern town in the world? 

56. What races dwell in the extreme northern 
part of the Scandinavian Peninsula? 

57. How does the Russian Empire rank, and what 
does it include? 

58. What is the state of the inhabitants? 

59. What are the five Great Powers of Europe? 

60. What large and navigable rivers in Central 
Europe? 

61. What is the rank of France among States? 

62. What of its education? 

63. What are the forms of industries of the peo- 
ple ? 



294 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

64. For what is the capital city of France noted, 
and how does it rank in size? 

65. Of how many states is the German Empire 
composed ? 

66. Name the most important. 

6y. What is the extent and population of Ger- 
many ? 

68. What are the employments of its people ? 

69. What are its exports, and how does it com- 
pare with England in manufactures and commerce ? 

70. How does Germany rank with other countries 
in educational matters ? 

71. What are the divisions of the Austrian Em- 



pire ? 



72. Why is the foreign trade of Austria limited ? 

73. Of what races are the people of Austria made 
up? 

74. Mention some of its important cities. 

75. What lands does Denmark comprise? 

;/6. What are the employments of the people? 

yy. What peculiarity about the State of Holland? 

78. What river waters Belgium and how is Bel- 
gium situated ? 

79. For what is the country of Switzerland prin- 
cipally noted ? 

80. What are its manufactures ? 

81. What is the present condition of the people 
of Spain ? 

82. What are the pursuits of the people of Portu- 
gal? 

83. With what other people are they closely al- 
lied? 

84. What are the characteristics of the people of 
Italy? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 29S 

85. What is the most important manufacture of 
Italy? 

86. What are the interesting features of Rome? 
2>7. What gives special interest to the Kingdom 

of Greece? 

88. What are the present employments of its peo- 
ple? 

89. Of what race are the Turks .^ 

90. To which continent does their Empire more 
properly belong? 

91. What are the races of Asia and what is the 
number of each? 

92. What is its state of civihzation? 

93. What is true of the rivers of Asia? 

94. What European powers have possessions in 

Asia? 

95. What is the form of government through- 
out Asia? 

96. How does China rank as an Empire? 

97. Of what political divisions does it consist? 

98. What is the number of its population? 

99. What is the character of its civihzation? 
100. Of what does the Empire of Japan consist? 
lOi. How do the Japanese rank in civilization? 

102. What is the situation of Africa? 

103. Give the outline of Africa. 

104. For what is Africa remarkable? 

105. Describe the mountains of Africa. 

106. Name the rivers of Africa. 

107. Describe the lakes of Africa. 
lOg. Name the productions of Africa. 
109. Describe the government of Africa. 

no. What is the number of inhabitants and to 
what races do they belong? 
III. Describe Egypt. 



296 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

112. For what is Egypt celebrated? 

113. Name the countries of Africa. 

114. What does Australia comprise? 

115. Describe the inhabitants of Australia. 

116. Name the countries of Australia and give the 
capital of each. 

117. What is the government of Australia? 

118. What is Oceanica? 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON POLIT- 
IC A LjGEOGR A P Y. 

1. Political Geography treats of men as inhabit- 
ants of the Earth, of the modes of life they lead, and of 
the forms of government under which they live. 

Eclectic Series School Geog.^ No. 3, /. i . 

2. Races, Nations, Industries, Governments, Civ- 
ilization, etc. 

Swinton's Complete Course, p, i. 

3. North America comprises six divisions: 

(i) The United States occupying the middle 
part of North America, and the north-western part 
called Alaska. 

(2) British America. 

(3) Danish America, comprising the islands of 
Greenland and Iceland. 

(4) The Republic of Mexico, lying south of 
the United States. 

(5) The Republics of Central America, lying 
south-east of Mexico, between the Caribbean Sea and 
Pacific Ocean. 

(6) The West Indies, comprising two island 
chains: the Antilles, and the Bahamas. 

Eclectic Series^ No. 2. 

4. The white race, Negroes and mulattoes, the 
descendants of slaves brought from Africa, Indians 
and Chinese. 

Harper's School Geog., p. 33. 



298 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

5. In ,1870, the population was about 39,000,000. 
The white race numbered about 34,000,000; Negroes 
and mulattoes nearly 5,000,000. Indians 350,000. 
C hinese 64,000. 

Id.y p. 33. 

6. Agriculture is the leading industry. Its chief 
seats are the Central and Atlantic Plains and the Cali- 
fornia Basin. Grazing is an important occupation in 
the agricultural regions. Mining is an industry of 
great and growing importance. The principal mines 
of coal and iron are in the Eastern Highland; those of 
gold and silver in the mountains of the Western High- 
land; those of lead in Nevada, Utah, and the valley 
of the upper Mississippi; and those of copper on the 
shores of Lake Superior. Manufacturing has its chief 
seat north of the Potomac and Ohio. Fishing is a 
leading interest in some of the New England States. 
Commerce, domestic and foreign. 

Id., pp. 33 ^;^^34. 

7. Cotton, breadstuffs, provisions, petroleum, gold 
and tobacco are the exports. The imports are dry 
goods, sugar, coffee, hides, tea, iron and tin. 

Id., p. 34. 

8. The foreign commerce of the United States is 
chiefly with England, Germany and France in Europe; 
with Canada, the West Indies and Brazil in America; 
and with China and Japan in Asia. 

Id., p. 34. 

9. This extensive country may be divided into 
three parts : The Dominion of Canada, the Province 
of Newfoundland and the "North-west Territory." 

Sivintons Complete Coiuse, p. 81. 
10. Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New 
Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario. These five provinces all 
lie in the basin of the St. Lawrence and the Great 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 299 

Lakes. They form the most populous, productive, and 
important section of the British American posses- 
sions. 

Id., p. 8i. 

11. This region possesses great natural wealth 
(i) In its extensive forests of pine, maple, 

beech and oak. 

(2) In the fertile soil of the St. Lawrence 
Basin. 

(3) In the fisheries of the St. Lawrence and 
neighboring- waters. 

(4) In its mines of iron, |coal, copper and lead. 

(5) In its direct water communication with the 
Atlantic. 

Id., p. 82. 

12. Farming, lumbering, ship-building, the fisher- 
ies, mining and commerce. 

Id., p. 82. 

13. With the exception of the United States and 
England it has a larger commercial marine than any- 
other country. 

Id., p. 82. 

14. The Dominion government is vested in a Gov- 
ernor-General appointed by the British sovereign, and 
a legislature, called the Parliament. 

Id., p. 82. 

15. The population is about 4,000,000. In civili- 
zation, the Dominion ranks with the United States. 
The people are educated, prosperous and progressive. 

Id., p. 82. 

16. The North-west Territory includes the vast 
tract of country north of the Dominion of Canada and 
the United States stretching from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific and extending about 1,400 miles from north 
to south. Id., p. 83. 



800 THE NORxMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

17. The people of Iceland are more intelligent. 

18. The population consists of Mexican Indians 
who form the majority, of Creoles, or people descend- 
ed from Spanish parents; and of Mestizos, or mixed 
races. The Mexicans are a civilized but not a pro- 
gressive race. 

Id., p. 84. 

19. Agriculture and silver mining are the princi- 
pal occupations, but every branch of industry is at the 
lowest ebb. 

Id., p. 84. 

20. Mexico is rich in silver, gold, quicksilver and 
other metals; and the soil is generally fertile. The 
country is, however, destitute of water highways from 
the interior to the coast. 

Id., p. 84. 

21. Central America is the seat of five indepen- 
dent republics — Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, 
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, and of the small province 
of British Honduras, or Belize. 

Id., p. 84. 

22. The importance of this country arises: 

(i) From its geographical position on the nar- 
row neck of land between the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans. 

(2) From its abundance of valuable natural 
products. Id., p. 84. 

23. Cuba and Porto Rico are colonies of Spain; 
Jamaica, the Bahamas, and most of the Lesser Antilles 
belong to Great Britain; the rest belong to France, and 
other European countries. Hayti was once divided be- 
tween France and Spain; it now consists of two inde- 
pendent negro republics — Hayti and San Domingo. 

Harper's School Geog., p. 73. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 801 

24. There are thirteen political divisions In South 
America. Nine states or republics, Venezuela, Col- 
umbia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Argentina, Uru- 
guay, Paraguay. One empire, Brazil. Three colonies 
British, Dutch and French Guyana. Patagonia has 
no organized government-. 

Eclectic Geog., No. 3, /. ^6. 

25. South America has about 26,000,000 inhabit- 
ants. One-third of these belong to the Caucasian 
race, one-third are hidians and the remainder consists 
of Negroes and persons of mixed bloody as. Mestizoes 
and Mulattoes. Id., p. 2>S. 

26. South America has had a comparatively lim- 
ited commerce. It is now rapidly increasing, especial- 
ly in Brazil, Chili, and the Argentine Confederation. 

Harper s School Geog., p. 78. 

27. Brazil is the largest and most important coun- 
try of South America. Its area is nearly as great as 
that of the United States or of all Europe. 

Szvintoiis Complete Course, p. 89. 

28. Rio Janeiro, sometimes called Rio, the most 
important port, is the capital of Brazil and the larg- 
est city in the Southern Hemisphere. 

Harper's School Geog., p. 80. 

29. The people are in general uneducated and 
unprogressive. They have few railroads, few tele- 
graphs, steamers, printing-presses or manufactures. 
South America has given to the rest of the world lit- 
tle except its tropical products, its gold and silver, and 
that most valuable of root-plants, the potato. 

Swintou's Complete Course, p. Z^. 

30. In the richness and variety of its vegetation, 
Brazil surpasses all other countries. 

Id., p. S^. 



302 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

31. Agriculture and stock-raising, are the chief 
occupations. The staple productions for export are 
coffee, of which it supplies three-fourths of the whole 
quantity used in the world; and sugar, in the produc- 
tion of which it is second only to Cuba. 

Id., p. 89. 

32. C hiH is the most enterprising country of South 
America, and has a large proportion of European in- 
habitants. 

Harper's School Geography, p. Si. 

33. The British Isles consist of Great Britian and 
Ireland, together with numerous small adjacent islands. 

S win ton's Complete Course, p. 95. 

34. The name British Empire is applied to the 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and its numer- 
ous colonies and possessions in various parts of the 
world. 

Id., p. 95. 

35. The Government is a hereditary limited mon- 
archy. The laws are made by ParHament, which is 
composed of the House of Lords and the House of 
Commons. 

7^.,/. 95. 

36. England is the largest, most populous, and 
most important division of the United Kingdom. 

7^.,/. 95. 

37. Its vast deposits of coal, iron, and other min- 
erals, its productive soil, its extent of sea-coast, its 
great number of good harbors and navigable bays and 
river-mouths, and its central situation for the commerce 
of the world, are the principal sources of the wealth 
and power of England. Id., p. 95. 

38. Commercially, England ranks as the foremost 
of countries. Id., p. 96. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 808 

39. It is rich in mines of copper, iron and coal. 

Id., p. 96. 

40. Manufacturing, agriculture and the fisheries.. 

Id., p. 96. 

41. The Highlanders are the descendants of the 
native race of Britain, and speak a Celtic language 
called Gaelic. The inhabitants of the Lowlands be- 
long to the same race as the English, and speak the 

English language. 

Id., p. 96. 

42. It is celebrated for its iron and cotton manu- 
factories. 

Id.,p.(^, 

43. Ireland is a beautiful and fertile island, about 
the size of the State of Maine. 

Id., p. 98. 
^. Politically it is divided into four provinces, Ul- 
ster, Leinester, Munster and Connaught, representing 
four ancient kingdoms, and these are subdivided into 
thirty-two counties. 

Id., p. 98. 

45. Dublin, the metropolis, a beautiful city and a 
seat of culture; Belfast, the center of the linen manu- 
facture and trade, and Cork, noted for its splendid har- 
bor, and its ship-building and trade. 

Id., p. 98. 

46. Europe contains four empires, Russia, Turkey, 
Germany, and Austria. 

Harper's School Geog., p, Z%, 

47. Two republics, France and Switzerland. 

Id., p. 88. 

48. There are ten independent kingdoms, Norway^ 
Sweden, Great Britain and Ireland, Spain, Portugal, 
Italy, Greece, Denmark, Belgium, and Holland. 

7^.,/. 88. 



304 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

49. Russia and Turkey are absolute, Germany, 
Austria and the ten kingdoms are limited monarchies. 

Id., p. 88. 

50. The total population of Europe is estimated 
at3oo millions, three-fourths of it being in Western 
Europe. 

Id., p. 88. 

51. It is nearly all Caucasian. The three branches 
of the Caucasian race in Europe are the Celts in the 
west, the Teutons from the Alps to Scotland and 
northern Norway, and the Slaves in the Great Plain. 

Id., p. 88. 

52. Sweden occupies the eastern, and Norway the 
western part. 

SwintorCs Complete Course^ p. 103. 

53. Lumber and fish. 

Harper's School Geog., p. 88 

54. Grain, iron and copper. 

Id., p. 88. 

55. Hammerfest is the most northern town in the 
world. 

Id., p. %Z. 

56. The Laplanders and Finns, who belong to the 
Tartar race. Their chief wealth is the reindeer which 
supplies them with food, clothing, and many useful ar- 
ticles. 

Swinton's Complete Course, p. 103. 

57. Russia is the most extensive of Empires, in- 
cluding one-half of Europe and one-third of Asia. It 
is about twice the size, and has nearly double the popu- 
lation of the United States. 

Id., p. 102. 

58. The inhabitants are mostly Slavonians. Ger- 
mans predominate in the provinces bordering on the 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 305 

Baltic Sea. The higher classes are well educated, but 
the great mass of the people cannot read or write. 
Eclectic Series School Geographies^ No. 3, /. 91. 

59. Russia, Germany, Austria, England and 
France, are the largest, most populous and powerful, 
and are called the Five Great Powers. 

Id., p. 90. 

60. Four navigable rivers — the Po, the Rhone, the 
Rhine, and the Danube— flow from the heart of high 
Europe and pass through the plains to four seas. 

Id., p. 90. 

61. France is one of the oldest, most powerful and 
most highly civilized nations of Europe. 

Swinton's Complete Course, p. 99. 

62. In literature, science and art France has long 
been distinguished; but until recently the education 
of the great body of the French people was almost 
entirely neglected. Now, however, an organized sys- 
tem of popular instruction is in operation under the 
control of the Government. 

Id., p. 99. 

63. Agriculture, manufacturing and commerce. 

Id., p. 99. 

64. It is the most beautiful and attractive of cities, 
and is the world's center of modern art, fashion and 
pleasure, as London is of commerce and of business. 
It is distinguished for its magnificent public buildings 
public gardens, and places of amusement, and for its 
great libraries, museums, art-galleries, and scientific 
schools, and also for the manufacture and sale oi arti- 
cles of art, ornament,and fashion. It is second only 
to London in wealth and trade. 

Id., p. 99. 
20 



806 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

65. Politically the German Empire consists of 
twenty-six States. 

Id., p. lOi. 

66. The Kingdom of Prussia — which embraces 
two-thirds of the area of Germany and a majority of 
its population,— and the three kingdoms of Bavaria, 
Saxony, and Wurtemburg. The other twenty-two 
States are small in extent, and are variously called 
grand duchies, duchies principalities, etc. 

Id., p. lOi. 

6y. The area of Germany is nearly the same as 
that of France, being 208,000 square miles. Popula- 
tion is about the same as that of the United States. ^ 

Id., p. lOi. 

68. The leading industries are agriculture, manu- 
facturing, mining and commerce. 

Id,, p. lOi. 

69. Wheat, wines, wool, and manufactures are the 
principal exports. In manufactures Germany is be- 
hind England and France. 

Id., p. lOi. 

70. In education Germany is the foremost coun- 
try in Europe. It has a fine system of public schools 
and education is compulsory. 

Id.yp. lOI. 

71. Austria proper and the kingdom of Hungary, 
together with the Polish States to the north of the 
Carpathian mountains. 

Id.y p. 102. 

72. As Austria has but little sea-coast, her foreign 
trade is limited. 

Id.yp. 102. 

73. About one half of the population belong to the 
Slavonic race, and one fifth to the Germanic ; one-sixth 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 307 

are Magyars, and the rest are made up of Roumanians, 
Jews, Gypsies, Greeks, etc. 

Id.^ p. 102. 

74. Vienna is the finest city of Central Europe, 
Pesth, the chief commercial city of Hungary ; Prague in 
Bohemia, Trieste, etc. 

Id.^ p. 102. 

75. Denmark consists of the peninsula of Jutland 
and of the adjacent islands at the entrance of the Baltic, 
the largest being Zealand and Flinen. 

Id.^ p. loj. 
y6. Denmark is mainly an agricultural and grazing 
country, but many Danes are engaged in fishing, or in 
a seafaring life. 

Id, p. 103, 
77. Some parts are even lower than the ocean at 
high tide and would be inundated, if they were not pro- 
tected by extensive dykes. 

Eclectric Series School Geographies, p. g^. 
*]%. The western part of Belgium, watered by the 
Scheldt and its tributaries, is a continuation of the flats 
of Holland. 

Swinton's Complete Course, p. 104. 

79. Switzerland has the sublimest scenery in Eu- 
rope. 

Id, p. 105. 

80. The manufacture of small articles such as 
watches, jewelry, silk-stuffs, ribbons and toys, is the 

chief occupation. 

Harper's School Geog., p. g^. 

81. In the sixteenth century, Spain was the great- 
est nation in Europe ; but owing to bad government it 
has sunk to the position of a second-rate power, and is 
neither progressive nor highly civilized. 

Swinton's Complete Course, p. 10^. 



308 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

82. The leadinc; pursuit is the culture of the vine, 
from which port wine is made, and of the olive and 
semi-tropical fruits. 

Id., /. /05. 

83. The Spanish. 

M, p, 105. 

84. The Italians are the purest representatives of 
the Latin race, and their language comes directly from 
the Latin. The people are generally industrious, frugal 
and temperate, but excitable and passionate. 

Id., p. 106. 

85. The silk manufactures of Italy are the most im- 
portant in Europe. 

Id., p. 106. 
Z6. Every part of Rome contains remains of tem- 
ples, baths, tombs, arches, and columns which excite ad- 
miration. 

Id.y p. 106. 
Sy. Five hundred years before the birth of Christ 
Greece was the most civilized of nations. Its republics 
were famous for their illustrious soldiers, artists, philos- 
ophers, poets and historians. 

Id., p. loy, 

88. A large part of the people are engaged in rais- 
ing sheep and goats. 

Id., p. loy, 

89. The Turks belong to the Mongolian race. 

Id., p. loy. 

90. The Empire of the Turks is more properly an 
Asiatic power. 

Id., p. loy. 

91. Mongolians, 500,000,000, Malay, 20,000,000, 
Caucasian, 180,000,000. 

Id., p. no. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 309 

92. The fertile plains of China and tropical Asia 
are the great seats of population. In this region civil- 
ized nations have existed for thousands of years, but 
this civilization has long been stationary. 

Id., p. no. 

93. They rank among the longest and largest on 
the globe. 

Id., p. no. 

94. The English, the Russians, and the Dutch are 
the only European nations that possess extensive do- 
minions in Asia. Siberia and Georgia form parts of the 
Russian Empire ; India and the Western Coast of 
Farther India belong to England ; and the greater por- 
tion of the East Indian Archipelago is governed by the 
Dutch. 

Eclectic Geography^ No, 2, p, 75. 

95. The government is an absolute monarchy. 

Harper's School Geography ^ p. 106. 

96. The Chinese Empire is one of five great gov- 
ernments which together cover more than half of the 
land surface of the globe. These are, in the order of 
their area, the British Empire, the Russian Empire, the 
Chinese Empire, the United States and Brazil. 

Id., p. 10^. 

97. The Empire is divided into three parts: 

1. China proper. 

2. Mantchooria. 

3. The Colonies, including Thibet, Mongolia, 
Little Turkestan, and Soongaria. 

Eclectic Intermediate Geography, p. yd. 

98. The total population of the Chinese Empire is 
estimated at 425,000,000. This is the densest popula- 
tion in the world. 

Harpef^ s School Geography, p. 10^. 



310 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

PQ. The civilization of China was already flourish- 
ing at a time when the Christian nations had no ex- 
istence. With the exception of the steam-engine and 
the electric telegraph there is scarcely any great inven- 
tion of modern times which has not been in use among 
the Chinese for many centuries. Still, they can not be 
regarded as a progressive people, and their conceit pre- 
vents their learning new ideas. It is but recently that 
China has been opened to the world. 

Swintoii's Geography^ p. 112. 

100. The Empire of Japan is composed of islands, 
the largest of which are Niphon, Yesso or Jesso, Kiusiu 
and Sikoke. 

Monteiths Comprehensive Geography^ p. 81, 

101. The Japanese are the most highly civilized and 
the most progressive of the Mongolian race. They are 
now rapidly introducing railroads, telegraphs, and im- 
proved machinery of all kinds, and have established 
public and scientific schools under the instruction of 
European and American teachers. 

Swintoiis Geography^ p, iij, 

102. Alrica extends between the parallels of 37** 
North and 35° South latitude. It is surrounded on all 
sides by the ocean, except where it is united to Asia by 
the Isthmus of Suez. 

Id.fP. up. 

103. It has few projections of land or inbreakings of 
the sea, and is the most regular of all the grand divi- 
sions. Its figure resembles that of an irregular triangle. 

Id., p. up. 

104. Africa is remarkable for its high surface, ex- 
tensive deserts, and hot climate. 

Monteitlis Co/nptehensive Geog., p. 8j. 

105. The mountains of Africa are ; 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 311 

1. The Atlas range, in the northwest. 

2. The mountains of Abyssinia. 

3. The mountains of the Great Lake Region, 
around the sources of the Nile, in which is Kilimanjaro 
(20,000 feet high), the loftiest peak of Africa. 

4. The mountains of South Africa, terminating 
in Table Mountain, in Cape Colony. 

5. The Kong Mountains, along the Guinea 

Coast. 

Swinton's Geog.^pp. iig—120. 

106. The African rivers are ^&\y in number, though 
some of them are noted for their great length. The 
most important are the Nile, Niger, Congo, Zambesi, 
and Orange. 

Id., p. 120. 

107. In the equatorial region of Africa is a series 
of lakes which in size rival, if they do not surpass, the 
Great Lakes of North America. The largest of these 
are lakes Albert, Victoria, and Tanganyika. 

Id., p. 120. 

108. The productions of Africa comprise grain, 
cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco, indigo, ivory, ebony, 
ostrich feathers, palm oil, and tropical fruits. 

Monteith's Comprehensive Geog.y p. 84. 

109. All the native governments are despotisms, 
and, except in Egypt and the Barbary States, are of 
the rudest and simplest description. 

Harpers School Geog., p. iiy. 
no. The population of Africa is estimated at 193,- 
000,000. They belong to two races, the Caucasian, 
and the Ethiopian. 

Eclectic Intermediate Geog., p. 80. 
III. Egypt, the most important and most interest- 
ing country of Africa, occupies the lower port-ion of 
the Nile valley, reaching from the Mediterranean to the 



812 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

First Cataract, a distance of between 500 and 600 
miles. 

Swinton^s Geo^aphy, p. 120. 
T12. Egypt is celebrated for its magnificent pyra- 
mids, temples, obelisks, statues, and tombs built more 
than 4000 years ago. 

MonteitKs Comprehensive Geog., p. 84. 

113. Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, Morocco, Algeria, 
Tunis, Tripoli, The Sahara, Soudan and Equatorial 
Africa, Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea 
Coast, Cape Colony and Natal, Orange Free State* 
Transvaal Republic, Madagascar and Zanquebar. 

SwintofCs Geography^ p. 123. 

114. Australia comprises the continental island of 

Australia and the large islands of New Guinea, New 

Zealand, Tasmania (or Van Diemen Land,) together 

with many small islands and groups of islands adjacent 

to Australia. 

Id., p. 125. 

115. The inhabitants are chiefly British, and their 
principal occupations are mining, agriculture, and 
grazing. The original inhabitants of Australia are 
short and stout, with small heads, flat noses, thick 
protruding lips, long coarse hair, and of a black or 
dark brown complexion. 

Monteith's Comprehensive Geog., p, 87. 
116. 

(i) Queensland occupies the north-eastern 
part of the continent. Brisbane is the capital. 

(2) New South Wales lies south of Queensland 
Sydney is the capital. 

(3) Victoria lies south of New South Wales. 
Melbourne is the capital. 

(4) South Australia lies west of Victoria and 
New South Wales. The capital is Adelaide. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 313 

(5) West Australia. Perth is the capital. 
(6 and 7) In North Australia and Alexandra 
Land, no settlements have yet been made. 

(8) Tasmania. Hobart Town is the capital. 
Eclectic Intermediate Geog.y /. 83. 

117. The colonies are politically independent of 
one another, and are g^overned by representatives 
chosen by universal suffrage, and by executive officers 
appointed by the C rown. 

Harper^ s School Geog.y p, 112. 

118. Oceanica is the great Island division of the 
earth. It includes Malaysia, Austraha, and Polynesia. 
The extent of the land surface is 4,500,000 square 
miles. 

Mitchell's Intermediate Geog.^ p. 97. 



QUESTIONS ON PHYSICAL GEOG- 
RAPHY. 



1. Define Physical Geography. 

2. Into what classes may the objects of which 
Physical Geography treats, be divided? 

3. What is the probable condition of the interior 
of the earth? 

4. What considerations indicate that the earth 
is still in a molten condition? 

5. What phenomena does the heated interior 
produce? 

6. What is a volcano? 

7. What is the usual shape of a volcano? 

8. Where else may the crater be located? 

9. What is the width of craters? 

10. Upon what does the slope of volcanoes de- 
pend? 

11. Into what two classes may they be divided? 

12. Define active volcanoes. 

13. Define extinct volcanoes. 

14. What is the number of volcanoes? 

15. What is their ordinary arrangement? 

16. Give examples. 

17. What apparent exceptions to this rule? 

18. What is the peculiarity in the distribution of 
volcanoes? 

19. What explanation! is given of this fact? 

314 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 315 

20. Locate the two volcanic zones which encircle 
the earth. 

21. In what regions of the earth is the greatest 
volcanic activity displayed? 

22. What theory is advanced as a possible cause 
of volcanoes.? 

23. Mention other volcanic phenomena. 

24. What are earthquakes.? 

25. What three kinds of earthquake movement 
have been noted? 

26. What is the usual duration of earthquakes? 

27. What is an earthquake area.? 

28. What is the cause of earthquakes? 

29. What is the law of their distribution? 

30. What connection exists between volcanoes 
and earthquakes? 

31. What relation between earthquakes and at- 
mospheric conditions.? 

32. Where are the land masses of the globe lo- 
cated.? 

33. Of what does the land consist? 

34. Under what two aspects may the land be 
studied? 

35. What separation of the land masses is marked 
by the zone of fracture.? 

36. What is the common form of the land masses? 

37. What difference in the direction of prolonga- 
tion between the eastern and western continents? 

38. What difference in other respects results from 
this? 

39. What differences in outline do the continents 
exhibit ? 

40. What influence has the articulations of coast 
upon a country and its people? 



316 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

41. What fact is true of well articulated coun- 
tries? 

42. How do the continents compare in this re- 
spect ? 

43. What constitutes the relief of a country? 

44. What two forms of relief exist? 

45. What influence has the reHef of a country 
upon its climate, life, &c.? 

46. What proportion of the continents is occu- 
pied by plains? 

47. How may plains be classified as to their for- 
mation and differences in character of surface? 

48. What are plateaus? 

49. Define a mountain chain. 

50. Define a mountain system. 

51. How are mountains supposed to have been 
formed? 

52. What two classes of mountains as to manner 
of formation.!* 

53- What two classes of valleys? 

54. What are continental axes.? 

55- What general law of relief has been observed 
from a study of the continents? 

56. What proportion of the land surface do the 
islands form? 

57- What two classes of islands? 

58. Define continental islands. 

59. What similarity do they bear to the mainland, 
and what does this indicate? 

60. Define oceanic islands. 

61. What two classes of oceanic islands? 

62. How do continental islands compare in size 
with oceanic islands? 

6^. What contrast in the rock material of the two 
classes of islands? 



THE NORMAL QUESTIOI!^ BOOK. 317 

64. Describe the common forms of coral islands. 

65. Upon what are coral islands built? 

66. Where are coral islands found and why are 
they confined to these regions? 

6y. What office do the waters of the earth per- 
form? 

68. What is the composition of water? 

69. What important peculiarity does water pos- 
sess ? 

70. What is the great reservoir of water? 

71. How are the waters dispersed over the earth? 

72. What are the sources of rivers? 

73. Where are springs most numerous? 

74. Upon what does the temperature of springs 

depend? 

75. What is a river system? 
y6. Define river basin. 

77. Define water-shed. 

78. Upon what does the volume of a river depend? 

79. What are canyons? 

80. What are deltas and estuaries? 
Si. What is erosion? 

82. Define lakes. 

83. What are mountain lakes.? 

84. What place have lakes in the economy of na- 
ture? 

85. What is the cause of the saltness of some 
lakes ? 

S6. Where are lakes most numerous? 

Sy. How is the sea divided? 

88. How are ocean basins divided ? » 

89. Describe the Pacific basin. 

90. Describe the Atlantic basin. 

91. Wherein do the ocean basins present great 
differences? 



ai8 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

92. How are coast waters classified? 

93. What is known of the ocean bed? 

94. How are the depths estimated in the absence 

of soundings? 

95. What are the greatest depths of the sea? 

96. Describe waves. 

97. What causes the advance of the wave? 

98. What retards or breaks it? 

99. Describe tides. 

100. Define flood and ebb tides. 
lOi. How are tides produced? 

102. What are tidal waves? 

103. Define spring and neap tides. 

104. How is the highth of tides modified? 

105. What phenomena are produced by these dif- 
ferences in level ? 

106. Describe oceanic currents. 

107. What is the cause of currents? 

108. To what three classes of currents does differ- 
ence of temperature give rise? 

lop. What modifies the direction of the polar and 
return currents? 

1 10. What office does the atmosphere of the earth 
perform? 

111. What is its composition? 

112. What is the depth of the atmosphere? 

113. What effect does the great compression of the 
atmosphere at the earth's surface produce? 

114. What is climate? 

115. Define Astronomical climate. 

116. Define Physical climate. 

117. What is the general law of astronomical cli- 
mate? 

1 1 8. Why is temperature greater at the Equator, and 
why does it gradually diminish toward the Poles? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 319 

119. What modifications of climate do the earth's 
motions produce? 

120. Where are the general deviations from the as- 
tronomical climate, most marked? 

121. What are isothermal lines? 

122. Where are the extreme deviations from astron- 
omical climate found? 

123. What difference between oceanic and continent- 
al climate? 

124. What is the origin of winds? 

125. How may they be classified? 

126. Where are the regions of these several classes 
of winds located? 

127. What are the equatorial calms and how pro- 
duced? 

128. Name some important constant winds. 

129. What gives direction to these winds? 

130. Name some periodical and variable winds. 

131. Upon what does the distribution of rain de- 
pend? 

132. How are clouds formed? 

133. Define dew, snow, hail, and frost. 

134. What portion of the earth's surface receives no 
rain, and why? 

135. Where are storms most violent? 

136. Describe glaciers. 

137. What is the origin of glaciers? 

138. Where is the most remarkable glacier region? 

139. What evidences exist of former systems of gla- 
ciers? 

140. What is the snow line? 

141. What causes lightning and thunder? 

142. Name some other electrical phenomena. 

143. What constitutes the flora of a country? 



320 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

144. What gives variety to the plant life of the 
globe ? 

145. What two forms of distribution of vegetation do 
we find? 

146. In what region is found greatest luxuriance 
and why? 

147. What similarity exists between the vertical and 
horizontal distribution? 

148. What constitutes the fauna of a country? 

149. What law of distribution prevails? 

150. What exception to this rule in the case of ma- 
rine animals? 

151. What marks the range of animals ? 

152. What exception to this rule? 

153. What appears to be the basis of distribution of 
plants ? 

154. What modifies the fauna of each continent? 

155. What evidences exist as to the unity of the hu- 
man race? 

156. What three strongly marked types exist? 

157. What three secondary races are found? 

158. What is supposed to have produced the diver- 
sity of races? 

159. What is the law of perfection of type in man? 

160. Which is the typical or normal race? 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHYS- 
ICAL GEOGRA PHY. 

1. Physical Geography treats of the Earth in its 
relations to nature and natural laws. 

H oust oil's Phys. Geog.y p. i 

2. Physical Geography treats of five classes of 
objects, viz; Land, Water, Air, Plants, and Animals. 

Id., p. I. 

3. The interior is probably still in a semi-fluid or 
pasty condition. 

4. The spheroidal form of the Earth is exactly 
what calculation shows would have been acquired, had 
the Earth once been in a molten state, and exposed 
to about the same velocity of rotation on its axis that 
it now has. This seems to point to a former fluidity 
and renders it probable that the present crust or solid 
part has been formed by the gradual cooling of the 
melted mass. The crust does not appear to have 
reached, as yet, any very considerable thickness^ and 
the interior is, therefore, probably still in a semi-fluid 
state. 

Id., p. 20. 

5. Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Hot Springs, Non- 
volcanic igneous eruptions, and the gradual subsi- 
dences or elevations of the crust. 

Id., p. 21. 

6. A Volcano is a mountain or other elevation, 

21 321 



322 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

from which the materials of the interior escape to the 
surface. 

Id., p. 21. 

7. A volcanic mountain is usually ofconical shape, 
with a circular basin or depression at its summit, call- 
ed the Crater. In the center of the crater is the 
mouth of a perpendicular shaft or chimney. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog.^p. 12. 

8. It may be either on the top or sides of the 
mountain. 

Hoiistoiis Phys. Geog., p. 21. 

9. Craters differ greatly in size, the larger vary- 
ing from 2000 to 18000 feet. 

Cornell 's Phys. Geog., p. 24. 

10. The slope of a volcano depends on the mat- 
ter of which it is composed. Lava cones have very 
gentle slopes; tufa cones, or those originally formed 
of cinders wet with water and steam, have a steeper 
surface; and cones composed of dry cinders have the 
steepest slopes of all, their inclination sometimes being 
as great as 45 degrees. 

Id., p. 24. 

11. Volcanoes may be distinguished as Active and 
Extinct. 

Id., p. 24, 

12. Active Volcanoes are such as are either in a 
a constant state of eruption, or have eruptions from 
time to time, with intervals of rest. 

Id., p. 24. 

13. Extinct Volcanoes are such as are now at rest 
but were subject to eruptions in former ages, as is 
shown by their form and structure, and the presence 
of craters. 

Id., p, 24. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 32.^ 

14. The number of volcanoes is not accurately 
known. The best authorities estimate it at about 672 
of which 270 are active. Of these latter, 175 are on 
islands, and 95 on the coasts of continents. 

Houston s PJiys. Geog.,p. 23. 
15- Volcanoes, though they are but local and ap- 
parently independent accumulations of materials, or- 
dinarily occur in lines more or less irregular. 

Guyofs PJiys. Geog., p. 15. 

16. The six volcanoes of Mexico are on a line 
which, when prolonged into the Pacific, strikes the 
Volcanic island of Socorro. The volcanoes of South 
America are all on the line of the Andes; and those of 
North America^ on the line of the Sierra Nevada and 
Cascade Mountains. Numerous examples are also 
found in other quarters of the globe. 

Id,, p. 15. 

17. The apparent-exception to this rule is found 
where volcanoes seem isolated, or form groups consist- 
ing of a central volcano surrounded by secondary cones. 
But even in this case the linear arrangement is appar- 
ent, since the groups themselves form long bands, as 
in the Polynesian Islands. 

Id., p. 15. 

18. Nearly all the volcanoes on the Earth's sur- 
face are situated along the mountain ranges and belts of 
islands which skirt the shores of the continents, while 
the interior is almost destitute of them. 

Id., p. IS. 

19. As volcanoes are nothing but openings through 
the earth's crust, that permit an escape from the pasty 
interior, they will occur only where the crust is weak- 
est. This will be on the borders of sinking oceans, in 
the line of fracture formed by the gradual separation 



324 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

of the ocean's bed from the coasts of the continent. 

Houston s PJiys. Geog., /. 25. 

20. The first zone includes the vast array of moun- 
tain chains, peninsulas, and bands of islands which en- 
circle the Pacific Ocean with a belt of burning moun- 
tains. 

The second zone, though less continuous, is 
hardly less remarkable. It is the belt of broken lands 
and inland seas, which, extending round the globe, 
separates the northern from the southern continents. 

Giiyof s PJiys. Geog., p. 15. 

21. The volcanic forces display the greatest intensi- 
ty at the intersections of the two volcanic zones, in C en- 
tral America and the East Indian Archipelago. 

Id., p. 16. 

22. The rain water which, having entered the 
ground, instead of reappearing in theform of springs or 
artesian wells, penetrates deep into these subterranean 
cavities, may become so heated, under the high pres- 
sure to which it is subject, as to produce the usual 
volcanic phenomena. Id., p. 16. 

23. Mud Volcanoes — small hillocks that emit 
streams of hot mud and water from their craters, but 
never molten rock. Fields of Fire — In certain locaHties 
inflammable gas issues from openings in the ground. 
When lighted it burns for a considerable time. Solfat- 
aras — regions where sulphur vapors escape, forming 
incrustations. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., pp. 25 and 26. 

24. Earthquakes are movements of the Earth's 
crust, varying in intensity from a hardly perceptible 
vibration to violent convulsions, which change the face 
of the ground and overthrow the most substantial 
works of man. 

Guyot's Phys. Geog., p. 16. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 825 

1. The wave-like or undulatory. 

2. The vertical motion which acts from be- 
neath like the explosion of a mine. 

3. The whirling or rotary motion. 

Id., p. 16. 

26. When the area of disturbance is large, shocks 
of varying intensity generally follow each other at 
irregular intervals. Though, in general, the violence 
of the shock is soon passed, disturbances may occur 
at intervals of days and weeks, or even years. 

Houston's Phys. Geog.y p. 26. 

27. There are circumscribed regions in which the 
surface is liable to be shaken simultaneously, such a 
region being called an earthquake area. 

Gtiyofs Phys. Geog.^p. 17. 

28. It is now generally believed that the principal 
cause of earthquakes is the strain produced by the 
contraction of a cooling crust. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 27. 

29. Earthquakes may occur in any part of the 
world, but are most frequent in volcanic districts. 
They are more frequent in mountainous than in flat 
countries. 

Id., p. 27. 

30. The analogy in the distribution of earthquakes 
and volcanoes is evident, yet the former occupy a far 
more extensive domain than the latter. Both are most 
intense in their action along the great fractures of the 
earth's crust; yet we are not, on that account, to con- 
clude that the one is the cause of the other ; they only 
require similar conditions for their manifestation. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 77. 

31. Within the tropics, especially, earthquakes are 



826 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

most frequent in that part of the year in which the great- 
est atmospheric disturbances take place. They are most 
dreaded at the beginning of the rainy season, when the 
monsoons are changing direction. 

Id., p. ly. 

32. The land masses are crowded together around 
the North Pole, their northern limits being about the 
70th parallel. Thence they extend towards the south in 
three vast divergent tracts, terminating in points widely 
separated one from another. 

Id.,p,2i. 

33. The land consists of six great bodies called 
continents, and a multitude of small fragments called 
islands, which skirt the shores of the continents, or dot 
the broad expanse of the sea. 

Id., p. 21. 

34. Every continent presents itself to the observer 
in a twofold aspect, as a surface, with peculiarities of 
horizontal form and outline, given by the line of contact 
of land and water; and as a solid, with peculiarities of 
vertical form, given by the elevation ol its surface above 
the level of the sea. 

Id., p. 22. 

35. Each of the three tracts of land is invaded near- 
ly midway by the ocean, or by great inland seas, from 
which there results, in each, a belt of broken lands, pen- 
insulas and islands. Within this belt are the great archi- 
pelagoes of the East and West Indies, and the peninsu- 
las of Southern Asia and Europe. 

Id., p. 21. 

36. Every great continental mass has a figure more 
or less triangular. Austraha alone approaches a quad- 
rilateral form. 

Id., p. 22. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 327 

37. In the two Americas, the sharpest angle of the 
continental figure is turned towards the south, and the 
greatest elongation is in the direction of the meridians. 
In Asia-Europe, on the contrary, the sharpest angle is 
towards the west, and the greatest elongation of the 
double continent is in the direction of the parallels. 

In Africa and Australia, the greatest extent from 
east to west is approximately equal to that from north 
to south. 

Id., p. 22. 

38. America extending about 9,000 miles from 
north to south, traverses all the climatic zones, exhibit- 
ing, as a result, great variety in the character of its plants 
and animals. Asia-Europe having, also, a length of 
9,000 miles, has, from the Pacific shores to the Atlantic 
a general similarity of climate, vegetation and animals. 

Id., p. 22. 

39. The outlines of the continents exhibit striking 
differences. Some are deeply indented with gulfs and 
inland seas; while others present a massive form without 
indentations or projections worthy of notice. 

Id.., p. 22, 

40. They increase the length of coast line, and the 
contact ofland and water; they favor the formation of con- 
venient harbors, and open the interior of the continents 
to commerce by sea. The sea penetrating into the land 
moderates the extremes of temperature, and increases 
the moisture of the atmosphere. Again, the subdivision 
of the continents into peninsulas, forming diverse physi- 
cal regions, secures a higher development of human so- 
ciety by assisting in the formation of distinct nationali- 
ties ; like those created in the great peninsulas of India 
and Arabia, Greece, Italy and Spain. 

Id., pp. 22-23. 



328 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

41. The deeply indented, well articulated continents 
are, and have always been, the abode of the most highly 
civilized nations. 

Id,, p. 23. 

42. Europe surpasses all the other continents in the 
relative magnitude of its indentations and projections; 
Asia is second, North America, though considerably less 
indented, still has peninsulas bearing to its entire area 
the proportion of 1:14. The southern continents, on the 
contrary, are nowhere deeply penetrated by the waters 
of the ocean. 

Id., p. 23. 

43. The vertical configuration of a continent or is- 
land — that is, its elevation as a whole, varied by plains, 
table-lands, mountains, and valleys — is called its relief. 

Id,, p. 2^. 

44. Elevations in mass, and linear elevations. 

45. A difference in altitude of no more than 330 
feet, is sufficient to produce a difference in temperature 
of 1° Fahrenheit, being equivalent to a difference 
of seventy miles in latitude. An increase in altitude 
of but a few thousand feet, therefore, changes en- 
tirely the character of a region, like a removal of it from 
torrid to temperate latitudes, or from temperate to frig- 
id. The relief also controls the drainage of a continent, 
and influences to a certain extent the direction and 
character of the winds, and the distribution of rain. 

Id., p. 24.. 

46. Plains cover nearly one-half of the land surface 
of the earth. In the Eastern continent they lie mainly 
in the north; in the Western they occupy the central por- 
tions. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 40. 

47. Alluvial plains are formed of materials deposited 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 829 

by rivers upon overflowed lands. Marine plains, so 
called because they seem to have been formed under 
sea water, and resemble the sandy bottom of an ancient 
ocean. Undulating plains have the surface varied 
by swells of greater or less elevation, but rarely above 
the general level. 

Guy of s PJiys. Geog., p. 2^. 

48. Plateaus, also called Table-lands and High 
Plains, ar^ tracts, either level or diversified by hill and 
vale, having an elevation of more than 1,000 feet above 
sea level. 

Comeirs Phys. Geog., p. 16. 

49. In a mountain chain, the crest or summit of the 
range separates into a number of detached portions, 
called peaks; below the peaks the entire range is united 
in a solid mass. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 41. 

50. A mountain system is a name given to several 
connected chains or ranges. 

Id., p. 40. 

51. Most mountain chains seem to have been pro- 
duced by tremendous lateral pressure in portions of the 
earth's crust, causing either long folds, or deep fissures 
with upturned edges rising into high ridges, the broken 
strata forming ragged peaks. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 26. 

52. There are two distinct types of mountain chains 
—mountains by folding, which are generally of moder- 
ate elevation; and mountains by fracture, to which be- 
long the highest chains of the globe. 

Id., p. 26, 

53. Valleys are either longitudinal or transverse. 

Warre?i's Phys. Geog., p. 20. 

54. The great dividing ridges, from which the conti- 



330 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

nent, as a whole, slopes in opposite directions, may be 
called the main axis of the continent. The less high- 
lands, separating into opposite slopes the part of the con- 
tinent in which they are situated, form a secondary axis. 

Guy of s PJiys. Geog.^ p. jo. 

55. All the long, gentle slopes descend towards the 
Atlantic Ocean and its prolongation, the Arctic ; while 
all the short and rapid slopes are directed towards the 
Pacific, and its dependent, the Indian Ocean, the highest 
lands being adjacent to the shoresof the greatest oceans. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog., p. ^2. 

56. Of the 53,000,000 square miles of land, nearly 
3,000,000, or about one-seventeenth, is composed of is- 
lands. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. j6. 

57. Islands are either continental or oceanic. 

Id., p. j6. 

58. Continental islands are those that lie near the 
shores of continents; 

Id., p. j6. 

59. From the close resemblance they generally 
bear to the geological structure of the mainland, they 
are probably but continuations of the neighboring 
mountain ranges, or continental elevations. They may 
therefore, be regarded as the projections of submerged 
portions of the neighboring continents. They have 
in general, the same lines of trend as the shores of the 
mainland. 

Id., p. 36. 

60. Oceanic islands comprise those far away from 

the continents. 

Id, p. 38. 

61. Isolated oceanic islands are mainly of two 
kinds, the volcanic and the coral. 

Id.,p.3S. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 331 

62. Continental islands, as a rule, are larger than 
oceanic islands. Id., p. 37. 

63. The rocks which make up the body of the 
continents and continental islands — sandstone, slate, 
granite, and the various metamorphic rocks — are en- 
tirely wanting in oceanic islands. The latter are com- 
posed either of volcanic substances, or of limestone. 

Giiyofs Phys. Geog., p. 43. 

64. Though of a great variety of shapes, they 
agree in one particular, viz. : They consist of a low 
narrow rim of coral rock, enclosing a body of water 
called a lagoon. 

Houston s Phys. Geog., p. 38. 

65. Reef-building polyps do not live below the 
depth of 100 or 120 feet, and hence require a foun- 
dation near the surface. This is furnished by sub- 
marine mountains and plateaus, or the slopes of vol- 
canic cones which form the high islands. 

Giiyofs Phys. Geog., p. 44. 
66. According to Dana, the reef-forming coral 
polyp is not found in regions where the mean annual 
temperature of the waters exceeds 6'^^ Fahr. Coral 
islands are therefore confined to those parts of tropi- 
cal waters where the depth does not greatly exceed 
100 feet, and which are protected from cold ocean cur- 
rents, from the influence of fresh river waters, and are 
remote from active volcanoes. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 39. 
67. By disintegrating and rearranging the mate- 
rials of the earth's crust, it was the principal agent in 
shaping what is now the solid land. It is equally in- 
dispensable in carrying on the processes of vegetable 
and animal life, as it forms the larger part of all or- 



ganized bodies. 



Guyofs Phys. Gcog., p. 47. 



332 THE NOllMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

68. Water is a liquid, composed of two gases, 
oxygen and hydrogen, chemically combined in the 
ratio, by weight, of eight to one. 

69. Water contracts in volume with a diminution 
of its temperature, until reduced to 39.2° Fahr., where 
its density is greatest. Below this temperature it ex- 
pands. 

Id., p. 47. 
But for this curious exception in the physica 
properties of fresh water, at least three-fourths of the 
habitable globe would be incapable of sustaining its 
present life. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 54. 

70. The great reservoir of terrestrial waters is the 
sea. 

Giiyofs PJiys. Geog., p. 47. 

71. By slow but constant evaporation the water is 
lifted into the atmosphere in the form of vapor which, 
borne by the winds to the continents, is there con- 
densed and falls in beneficent rains. 

Id., p. 47. 

72. The water which issues from the ground as 
springs, which is derived from the melting of ice or 
snow, or which drains directly from the surface after 
rainfall, runs down the slopes of the land, and collects 
in the depressions formed by the intersection of the 
slopes, in rills or rivulets, which at last combine in 
larger streams, called rivers. 

H 071 St oil's PJiys. Geog., p. 58. 

73. Springs are most numerous in and around 
mountainous regions. 

Giiyofs PJiys. Gcog., p. 48. 

74. The temperature of a spring depends much on 
that of the strata through which its waters pass. Some 



THE NOKMAL QUESTION BOOK. 333 

Springs are icy cold, particularly in mountain-regions. 
Others, coming from consideJable depths are warm, 
hot, and even boiling; their heat is attributed in some 
cases to volcanic, and in others to chemical, action. 

Cornel Ts Phys. Geog., p. 36. 

75. Rivers that discharge their waters into the 
same ocean or its arms, constitute what is called a 
river-system. Four systems, the Atlantic, Arctic, Pa- 
cific and Indian, embrace all the rivers of the globe, 
except a few which are absorbed in the sand, and oth- 
ers that empty into certain inland seas, or lakes not 
connected with the ocean, whose waters are carried off 
by evaporation. 

Id., p. 39. 

^6. The entire area of land which drains into the 
river system is called its basin. 

Houston s Phys. Geog., p. 58. 

yj. The ridge or elevation which separates two 
opposite slopes, is called a water-shed. 

Id., p. 58. 

78. The amount of water transported by a stream 
is by no means proportionate to the extent of its ba- 
sin, nor to the length of its course, but depends on 
the amount of rain falling upon the area drained, and 
the ratio of evaporation to rainfall throughout the ba- 
sin. Extensive forests in a river basin augment the 
volume of the water, for they both increase the rain- 
fall and retard the evaporation of water from the soil. 

Guyot's Phys. Geog., p. 48. 

79. A deep gorge, ravine or gulch between high 
and steep banks, worn by water courses. 

Webster s Unabridged Dictionary, 

80. Deltas and estuaries are terms applied to dif- 
ferent forms of river-mouths. A delta is formed by 
the detritus or earthy material which the river carries 



834 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

along from the upper part of its basin, and which, 
owing to the decrease of velocity it deposits near the 
mouth. 

Warrens Phys. Geog.^ /. 38. 

81. The wearing away by rivers of the rock-ma- 
terials over which they flow, is called erosion. 

Id., p.17. 

82. Lakes are bodies of water collected in depres- 
sions of the land. 

Id., p. 41. 

83. Mountain Lakes are valleys or chasms filled 
by streams. They are long and narrow, rarely of ex- 
tensive area, but often of great depth. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 51. 

84. They form reservoirs, which, receiving the sur- 
plus, waters in time of freshets, equalize the flow of riv- 
ers and prevent destructive inundations. In their basins 
the wild mountain torrents find rest and the muddy 
waters deposit their sediment, and flow out pure and 
transparent with a gentle current. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog., p. 51. 

85. The surfaces of the continents having been 
the beds of the primeval oceans, the presence of salt 
in the soil is a natural consequence. Fresh water 
streams and lakes were formed only after the soil had 
been thoroughly washed by rains, and the salt carried 
away by streams into the ocean. If the streams re- 
ceiving the substances washed from the soil by the 
rainfall, do not flow away to the ocean, but enter in- 
land basins without outlet, the lakes formed in those 
basins will necessarily be salt. 

Id., p. 51. 

86. Lakes are most numerous in the central and 
northern portions of Asia, Europe, and North Ameri- 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 335 

ca. The southern continents, except Africa, have 
comparatively few. 

Id., p. 52. 

87. The waters of the sea are separated by the 
lands into three great oceans, which are the counter- 
parts of the land masses. 

Id,, p. 59. 

88. The Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are subdivided 
each having a northern and a southern basin, corres- 
ponding to the northern and southern continents. 
The Indian Ocean has only a southern basin; but the 
vast depression between Asia and Europe, in the bot- 
tom of which lie the Caspian and Aral Seas, may be 
considered as, in certain sense, its complement. The 
Arctic is properly a continuation of the Atlantic; The 
Antarctic, also, is not properly a separate ocean but is 
the common centre from which the three great basins 
radiate. 

Id., p. 59. 

89. The Pacific is oval in outline and broadly open 
at the south; but is nearly closed at the north. 

Id., p. 59. 

90. The Atlantic basin has been likened by Hum- 
boldt to a long valley, with approximately parallel 
sides. This is the only basin widely open at the north 
and, stretching from pole to pole, it forms the only 
complete channel for the interchange of polar and 
equatorial waters. 

Id., p. 59. 

91. The three great ocean basins differ in regard 
to the position and character of the branches, by which 
the coasts of the continents are indented. 

Id, p. 59. 

92. Coast waters may be classified, according to 
their form and their position in respect to the adjacent 



336 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

lands, as inland seas, border seas, and gulfs or bays. 

93. Little is known, in[detail, in regard to the con- 
formation of the bottom of the sea. But numerous 
soundings, both in shallow shore waters and in the 
deep sea, have given us an approximate idea of the na- 
ture of the beds of the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea. 

Id., p. 59- 
The bed of the ocean, though diversified like 
the surface of the land, contains fewer irregularities. 
Numerous soundings show that itextends,for immense 
distances, in long undulations and slopes. Its plateaus 
and plains, therefore, are of great size, compared with 
those of the continents. Submerged mountain ranges 
occur mainly along the shores, and belong, properly, to 
the continental systems of elevations. 

Houston! sPhys. Geog.yp.6y, 

94. In the absence of soundings, ocean depth has 
been calculated from the velocity of the tide-wave and 
earthquake waves crossing it, which depends upon the 
depth of the basin in which the v/^aves move. 

GtiyoU p' 60. 

95. Observations thus far made justify the conclu- 
sion that the greatest depths of the sea are from 25,000 
to 30,000 feet, about equivalent to the greatest heights 
upon the continents. 

Id., p. 60. 

96. Waves are ridges of water, produced by the 
friction of the winds on the surface. The stronger 
the wind, the higher the waves rise, the farther they 
are apart, and the deeper the trough between them. 

Cornells Phys. Geog., p. 32. 

97. The advance of the wave is the communica- 
tion of the wave movement to successive portions of 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 337 

the sea ; and not, to any considerable extent, except 
in shallows, an onward movement of the water itself. 

Guyot's Phys. Geog., p. 6i. 

98. When waves, advancing towards the shore 
reach the shallows, the motion is retarded at the bot- 
tom by friction; and the top, moving on without sup- 
port, curls over and breaks in foam upon the beach; or 
in very shallow seas, it may break at a considerable 
distance from the shore. 

Id., /. 61. 

99. Tides are the periodical risings and fallings of 
the water, caused by the attraction of the sun and 
moon. The alternate risings and falHngs succeed each 
other with great regularity, and consume about six 
hours each. Unlike waves, tides affect the waters of 
the ocean to great depths. 

Houstofis Phys. Geog., p. 69. 
100. The rising of the water is called flood tide ; 
the falling, ebb tide. 

Id., p. 69. 
lOi. Tides are produced by the attraction of the 
moon and sun, — principally that of the former, — act- 
ing with different degrees of force on different parts of 
the earth. 

CornelVs Phys. Geog., /. 33. 

102. The moon attracts both the land and the sea; 
but the particles of the latter being free to move, the 
waters are drawn towards the attracting body; and 
where its influence is most powerful, are Hfted up above 
the normal curve of the surface of the sea. Thus is 
formed a vast swell, or tide wave, upon the hemisphere 
turned towards the moon. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 61. 

103. When the sun and moon act together, on the 
same hemisphere of the earth, the tidal wave is higher 



838 THE NOKMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

than usual. • The flood tides are then highest, and the 
ebb tides lowest. These are called spring tides. They 
occur twice during every revolution of the moon^ 
once at full, and once at new moon. 

When the sun and moon are 90° apart, or in 
quadrature, each produces a tide on the portion of the 
earth directly under it, diminishing somewhat that 
produced by the other body. High tide then occurs 
under the moon, while the high tide caused by the sun 
becomes, by comparison, a low tide. Such tides are 
called neap tides. 

HoustofUs Phys. Geog., p. 79. 

104. The height of the tide depends on local cir- 
cumstances. In the midst of the Pacific, it is scarce- 
ly more than two feet, which may be considered 
its normal level. But when dashing against the 
land, or forced into deep gulfs and estuaries, the 
accumulating tide waters sometimes reach a great 

height. 

Gtiyofs Phys. Geog., p. 64. 

105. Differences in level, produced by high tides 
cause currents which vary in force and direction with 
the condition of the tide, producing, in some cases, 
dangerous whirlpools. The famous Maelstrom, off the 
coast of Norway, is but a tidal current. Such is, also, 
the famous whirlpool of Charybdis, in the Strait of 
Messina, and many others of less note. 

Id., p. 64. 

106. The Ocean Currents are vast rivers in the sea, 
which move on steadily through water comparatively 
at rest, and are often different from the latter in color 
and temperature. Some are hundreds of miles broad, 
thousands of feet deep, and have a course embracing 
the larger part of the ocean in which they move. 

Id., p. 65. 



TllK NOK.MAL (QUESTION BOOK. 339 

107. The main causes of these vast movements in 
the ocean are found in the winds, the excessive evap- 
oration within the tropics which tends to lower ^he 
level of the water there, and the differing tempera- 
tures of polar and equatorial regions. The cold wa- 
ters of the higher latitudes, being heavier, tend con- 
stantly to flow into the warmer waters of the equato- 
rial seas; and the latter, being displaced by the former, 
flow away as surface currents towards the poles. 

/^.,/. 65. 

108. Polar, Equatorial, and Return Currents. 

7^.,/. 65. 

109. The Polar and Return Currents, were they 
acted upon by no external force, would move in the 
line of the meridians, taking the shortest course be- 
tween the Poles and the Equator. Both are, however, 
deflected from this course by the unceasing action of 
the earth's rotation, — the Polar Currents, as they ad- 
vance, tending more and more towards the west, and 
the Return C urrents towards the east; and their direc- 
tions are still farther modified by the forms of the ba- 
sins of the several oceans, and the influence of the 
prevailing winds in the different zones. 

Id., p. 65. 

no. In the economy of the globe, the atmosphere 
is of the greatest importance. It supplies animals and 
plants with air, retains and modifies the solar heat, 
and carries moisture over the surface of the land, 
where it descends as rain or snow. Without the at- 
mosphere the earth would be a barren and lifeless 
waste. 

Warren! s Phys. Geog., p. 50. 

III. The atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of ox- 
ygen and nitrogen, in the proportion, by volume, of 21 



3*0 THE NORMAL QUESTION J^OOK. 

parts of the former to 79 of the latter; with a very 
small quantity of carbonic acid, and more or less of 
watery vapor held in suspension. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog., p. 68. 

112. Calculations based upon the diminution of 
pressure with the height, estimate it at from 45 to 50 
miles; others, based on the duration of twilight, at dis- 
tances varying from 35 to 200 miles. 

Houston s Phys. Geog., p. 7^- 

113. It will be seen that one half of the entire at- 
mosphere, by weight, is condensed within 3f miles — 
about 18,000 feet — of the sea level; and fully two-thirds 
are below the level of the summit of the highest moun- 
tains. This fact has an important bearing, both on the 
influence of mountains in directing or modifying the 
course of the winds, and on the general climatic phe- 
nomena of the globe. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog.^ p. 69. 

114. The physical agencies acting through the at- 
mosphere upon organic life, constitute climate ^ of which 
heat and moisture are the essential elements, the winds 
being the medium of circulation. 

Id., p. 70. 

115. The general climatic conditions belonging to 
a region, and depending upon its latitude, constitute 
its astronomical climate. 

Id., p. 70. 

116. The climate belonging to a place, by its lati- 
tude is usually modified, to a greater or less extent, by 
secondary physical agencies, — among which are the 
general atmospheric and marine currents, the differing 
power of land and water to absorb and radiate heat, 
and the altitude of the surface. The astronomical 
climate of a region thus modified, is its real, or physi- 
cal climate. Id., p. 70. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 341 

1 17. The amount of heat produced by the sun upon 
the earth's surface, is greatest near the Equator, and 
diminishes gradually towards the Poles. 

Id., p. 70. 

118. 

(i) In the Equatorial regions the sun's rays are 
perpendicular to the surface of the sphere, and there 
produce their maximum effect; but, on account of the 
curved outline of the globe, they fall more and more 
obliquely with increasing latitude, and the intensity of 
action diminishes proportionately. At the Poles, they 
are tangent to the surface, and their effect is zero. 

(2) The area on which a given amount of heat- 
ing power is expended is least at the Equator, conse- 
quently the resulting heat is greatest. 

(3) The absorption of heat by the atmosphere 
as the sun's rays pass through it, is least where they 
fall perpendicularly, — that is in the Equatorial regions, 
and increases, with their increasing obliquity, towards 
the Poles. 

Id.,p, 70. 

119. In consequence of the inclination of the axis, 
the declination of the sun, or its angular distance from 
the Equator, varies with the advance of the earth in 
its orbit, causing periodical variations in the length of 
day and night and consequently, in temperature. 

Id., p. 70. 

120. The general deviations from the astronomical 
climate occur chiefly in the middle latitudes. 

Id., p. 72. 

121. Humboldt devised a series of lines known as 
isotkermals, or lines of equal average temperature, in 
order to illustrate the actual distribution of heat, irre- 
spective of latitude. Each line connects places hav- 
ing the same mean temperature, either of the year, a 



342 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

season, or any one month. Annual isothermals show 
the average temperature belonging to the places which 
they connect; the tnonthly and season isothermals 
show the distribution of heat throughout the year. 

Id., p. 72. 

122. The extreme deviations occur on the coasts 
of the north Atlantic, western Europe being very 
much warmer than eastern America in corresponding 
latitudes. 

Id., p. 72. 

123. In general the climate of the oceans is charac- 
terized by uniformity, the difference between the sum- 
mer and the winter temperature being comparatively 
slight. The continental climate, on the contrary, is 
characterized by sudden changes, and extremes, the 
difference between the summer and the winter temper- 
ature, in middle and high latitudes, being excessive. 

Id.,p.n. 

124. Winds are masses of air in motion. They 
somewhat resemble currents in the ocean, and result 
from the same causes, viz. : the disturbance in the 
equilibrium of the atmosphere by heat, and by the ro- 
tation of the earth. 

H oust 071 s Phys. Geog.,p. 83. 

125. As Constant, or those which blow continually 
in one direction, as, the Trade-winds; Periodical, or 
those which blow at certain periods only, as the 
Monsoons, Land and Sea Breezes, and Variable, or 
those which occur at irregular intervals. 

CornelVs Phys. Geog., p. 50. 

126. The law of atmospheric circulation gives rise 
to three distinctly marked wind zones, on each side of 
the Equator; namely: 

(i) The zone of constant winds, extending to 
latitude 25° or 30°. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 343 

(2) The zone of variable winds, with alternate 
polar and equatoral currents dominating, extending 
thence to latitude Go°, or near the polar circles; and 

(3) The zone of prevailing, though not constant 

polar winds. 

Guyots Phys. Geog., p. 77- 

127. The boundary between the northeast and 
southeast trades, is formed by the zone of the ascend- 
ing current, from 4° to 6° in breadth, adjacent to the 
thermial Equator. The mean position of this zone is 
in the Atlantic, between 3° and 9° north latitude; in 
the Pacific, between 4^° and 8° north. In the conti- 
nents it is usually found between 3° south, and 4° north 
latitude. Here the ascending current overpowers the 
horizontal; and, as the upward motion is not percep- 
tible to the observer, the atmosphere seems to be in a 
state of rest; hence this belt is designated the Zone 
of Equatorial Calms. 

Id., p. 77. 

128. The Trade-winds, so called from their influence 
on the trade of all maritime nations. 

CornelVs Phys. Geog., p. 50. 

129. The rotation of the earth on its axis gives the 
lower currents an easterly, and the upper currents a 
westerly, direction. Id., p. 50. 

130. Monsoons, and Land and Sea Breezes. The 
most remarkable variable winds are Whirl-winds and 
Hurricanes, Typhoons, or Cyclones. 

Id., pp. 50 and 51. 

131. The quantity of moisture in the air depends 
on its temperature, and its vicinity to the sea. The 
amount of precipitation regularly decreases as we pass 
from the Equator to the Poles, and from the coasts of 
the continents towards the interior. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 93. 



344 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

132. Clouds or fogs result whenever two bodies of 
air of different temperatures are mingled, especially if, 
as is generally the case, the warmer of the two is the 
moisten Id., p. 94. 

133. Dew is the moisture collected during the night 
m the form of small drops of water, on the surface of 
plants and other bodies. Frost is frozen dew. Snow 
is frozen moisture produced in the same manner as 
rain. It can only fall in regions where the tempera- 
ture of the air is at or below the freezing point. Hail 
is frozen rain. 

Warren's Phys, Geog. , pp. 60 and 62. 

134. The rainless regions of the Old, as well as the 
New World, lie almost entirely within the zones of the 
Trade-winds. Id., p. 63. 

There are certain regions of the globe, esti- 
mated in all at 5 J- millions of square miles, in which 
rain never falls. This is, for the most part, owing to 
the fact that the winds are deprived of their moisture 
before reaching these districts, either by encountering 
some mountain-chain or by blowing over extensive 
arid tracts. 

Cornells Phys. Geog., p. 56. 

135. The most remarkable for violence, and for the 
regularity of their course, are the hurricanes of the 
West Indies and of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean; the 
typhoons of the South China Sea; and the cyclones of 
the Gulf of Bengal. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog., p. 82. 

136. Glaciers are Immense masses of ice and snow, 
which move with extreme slowness down the higher 
mountain valleys or slopes. Their upper parts are 
formed of soft snow; their lower portions of clear 
hard ice. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 100.' 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 345 

137. The weight of the huge snow fields, which 
form above the snow hne, presses the mass slowly 
down the slopes. The pressure, due to the weight of 
the superincumbent layers, but especially that which 
is produced when the mass is forced through a con- 
traction in the valley, squeezes out the confined aic, to 
which snow, in great part, owes its white color, and the 
lower part of the glacier thus becomes changed into a 
compact mass of pure ice. The alternate thawing and 
freezing to which the mass is subjected below the snow 
line, also contributes to the change from snow to ice. 

Id., p. 100. 

138. The best known, and probably most remarka- 
ble glacier region is that of the high Alps, in the heart 
of which are Mount Blanc, Monte Rosa, and the 
Bernese Alps. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 95. 

139. When they have deserted their former valleys, 
evidences of their previous existence are to be found 
in the long lines of unstratified rocks and mud left by 
their moraines in their boulders, and especially in the 
deep grooves, or scratches, cut in the bottom or sides 
of the valleys by imbedded rocks. These scratches 
are parallel, and show the direction of the motion. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. loi. 

140. The lower limit of perpetual snow, called the 
snow line, is found, within the tropics, about three miles 
above the sea level. In temperate latitudes it occurs 
at the height of a little less than two miles; and at the 
northern limit of the continents, it is about half a mile 
above the level of the sea, or perhaps, even less than 
this. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., pp. 92 and ^i. 

141. Lightning results when the electricity of a 
cloud discharges to the earth or a neighboring cloud. 



SiQ THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

The discharge is due to the union of the positive and 
negative electricities of the cloud and neighboring ob- 
ject, and is attended by a vivid spark, called lightning. 
Houston s Phys. Geog.y p, 102. 
Thunder is caused by the violent displacement 
of the air produced by the passage of the lightning 
and its rush back again into the partial vacuum cre- 
ated. 

Warren's Phys. Geog., p. 6$. 

142. St. Elmo's fire and the Aurora Borealis and 
Aurora Australis. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog.^ p. 96. 

143. The plants of any section of country taken to- 
gether are called its flora. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. no. 

144. The floras of different parts of the earth differ 
widely, by reason of differences in heat, moisture, 
light, slope, and soil, — particularly by the first two. 

Cornell's Phys. Geog., p. 63. 

145. The influence of heat and moisture are noticed 
as we pass from the Equator to- the Poles, or from the 
base of a tropical mountain to the summit. Thus 
arises a horizontal and a vertical distribution of veg- 
etation. 

Ho2csto7i's Phys. Geog.^ p. no. 

146. The greatest luxuriance of vegetation is found 
in the equatorial regions, where heat and moisture are 
most abundant. 

Id., p. no. 

147. The observer, passing from the base to the 
summit of high mountains, in any latitude, finds varia- 
tions in the character of the plants similar to, though 
not identical with, those observed in advancing to 
higher latitudes. 

Guyot's PJivs. Geog., p. 102. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 347 

148. The animals found in any region of country 
are called its fauna. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 120. 

149. As a rule, the luxuriance and diversity of ani- 
mal life decrease as we pass from the Equator to the 
Poles. A similar decrease is noticed in passing from 
the coasts of the continents towards the interior. 

Id., p. 120. 

150. In marine animal life, the law of distribution 
is reversed, both the number and size of the species 
increasing from the Equator towards the Poles. This 
is probably due to the more equable temperature of 
the ocean in high latitudes. 

Id., p. 120. 

151. Large bodies of water, deserts, or mountain 
ranges, mark the boundaries of regions of animals as 
well as of plants; but the influence of temperature is 
so important, that even when these natural barriers 
are wanting, the horizontal range of animals is sharply 
marked by the isothermal lines. 

Id., p. 121. 
15^. Man, and his faithful friend, the dog, form an 
exception to most other animals in this respect. 

Id., p. 121. 

153. The distribution of heat, moisture, and vege- 
tation, forms the true basis for the distribution of ani- 
mal life. 

Id., p. 120. 

154. A careful study of the map of the distribution 
of animal life, will show that each continent possesses 
a fauna peculiar to itself This arises, generally, from 
some clearly traceable peculiarity in the distribution 
of the heat and moisture, or in the nature of the vege- 
tation. 

Id., p. 121. 



348 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK 

155- 

(i.) A comparison of the different tribes and 
races of men, reveals the fact of a gradual modification 
of types, on every side of the central or highest 
race, until, by insensible degrees, the lowest and 
most degraded forms of humanity are reached. 

(2.) In the central race, — among the individu- 
als of which there is greater diversity in form, fea- 
tures, temperament and mental characteristics, than 
in any other, — there are persons of pure blood who 
show, in a less degree, almost every distinguishing 
feature of each of the lower races. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog,, p, 118. 

(3 .) Since the earlier myths and legends of nearly 
all nations resemble each other, it is fair to infer that 
their remote ancestors originally dwelt together. The 
strongest proof of unity, however, is found in the very 
close rresemblance in the languages of many widely 
separated races. 

Houston s Phys. Geog.y p, 126. 

156. The Caucasian, the Mongolian, and the Ne- 
gro. 

Id., p, 126. 

157. The Malay, or Brown Race; the Australian; 
and the American or Copper-Colored. They are re- 
garded as modifications of the Mongolian Race. 

Id., p. 128. 
158- The ever varying external conditions. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 1 14. 
159. The law of perfection of type, in man, forms 
an exception to that observed in the lower orders of 
creation. The human family appears in its highest 
physical perfection, not within the Tropics, but in the 
Temperate Zone, in Western Asia, the geographical 



THE NORMAL QUES1 ION BOOK. 349 

center of the Old World. The type degenerates gradu- 
ally with increasing distance, in all directions from this 
geographical center; until, in the remotest regions of 
the globe, are found the ugliest, and most deformed 
specimens of the human family. 

Id,, p. ii8. 
i6o. The White race seems to be the normal race 
from which the others have gradually deviated. 

Id., p. 1 1 8. 



QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

1. Define government. 

2. What is the necessity of government? 

'^ 3. Name and define the kinds of government. 

4. What kind of government existed in the 
American Colonies prior to the Revolution? 

5. Define these different forms of government. 

6. What are laws? 

7. What is a state? 

8. Define civil government. 

9. What is a Constitution? 

10. When did the present Constitution of the 
United States go into operation? 

11. What is the introductory paragraph of the 
Constitution called? 

12. Repeat the Preamble. 

13. What is the object of the Preamble? 

14. What were the purposes for which the Con- 
stitution was adopted? 

15. Into how many departments is the govern- 
ment of the United States divided? 

16. Define these three departments. 

17. To what does Article I. of the Constitution 
relate? 

18. Give Section L, of Article I. 

19. What advantage is there in dividing the legis- 
lative body into two branches? 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 851 

20. How often are the members of the House of 
Representatives chosen? 

21. By whom are they chosen? 

22. Why is a comparatively short term of service 
fixed for the House of Representatives.? 

23. How old must a Representative be? 

24. What other qualifications are necessary? 

25. In what manner are Representatives and di- 
rect taxes apportioned among the several States? 

26. Repeat that part of the Apportionment clause 
which limits the number of Representatives. 

27. How are the vacancies in the Representation 
from any State to be filled? 

28. How are the Speaker and other officers of the 
House chosen ? 

29. What important power is exercised by the 
House? 

30. What is the power of impeachment? 

31. Are impeachments tried by the House? 

32. Of how many members is the Senate com- 
posed? 

33. How are the Senators chosen.? 

34. How do they differ in this respect from the 
Representatives ? 

35. For how long are the Senators chosen.? 

36. How do they differ in this respect from the 
Representatives? 

37. Why is a comparatively long term of service 
fixed for the Senators? 

38. Repeat that part of the Constitution which 
relates to the arrangement of Senators into classes. 

39. How are vacancies in the Senate filled? 

40. If the vacancies happen during the recess of 
the Legislature of the State, how shall they be filled ? 

41. What are the qualifications of the Senators? 



802 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

42. .Who is constituted the Presiding Officer of 

the Senate? 

43. When is he entitled to vote? 

44. How are the other officers of the Senate 
chosen? 

45. Who shall preside in the Senate on the trial 
of the President of the United States? 

46. What is necessary in order to convict a per- 
son on impeachment? 

47. How is the judgment, in cases of impeach- 
ment, Hmited? 

48. Are those convicted on impeachment liable to 
no other punishment? 

49. In what particulars shall the Legislature of 
each State regulate the election of Members of Con- 
gress? 

50. What power may Congress exercise in the 
matter? 

51. How often shall Congress assemble? 

52. What day is fixed for the meeting of Con- 
gress? 

53. Who are to judge of the right of any one to 
a seat in Congress? 

54. What number of each House of Congress is 
necessary to constitute a quorum? 

55. Who determines the rules of proceeding in 
Congress? 

56. What means has each House for enforcing its 
rules ? 

57. How is the publicity of the proceedings of 
Congress secured ? 

58. How is the responsibility of individual mem- 
bers secured? 

59. Repeat the clause which relates to revenue 
bills. 



TBJE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. ^^^ 

60. After a bill has passed both Houses of Con- 
gress, what must be done with it? 

61. What is still necessary before it can become a 
law? 

62. What must the President do if he does not 
approve it? 

63. What is the next thing to be done with it? 

64. Repeat that clause which limits the time that 
the President may retain a bill. 

65. What powers are granted to Congress? 
^^. What powers are denied to Congress? 
6t. What powers are denied to the States? 

68. In whom is the Executive power of the Uni- 
ted States vested? 

69. For how long a term is the President elected? 

70. What other executive officer is chosen at the 
same time and for the same period? 

71. How are Electors appointed? 

72. What persons are disqualified from being ap- 
pointed Electors? 

73. What is the mode of choosing the President 
and Vice-President? 

74. What number of Electoral votes is necessary 
to an election? 

75. What is to be done, in case no candidate has 
a majority of the whole number of votes? 

'j^y. In what manner shall the votes of the House 
be taken in choosing the President ? 

TT. What number of States is necessary to a 
choice by the House? 

'jZ. Repeat that clause of the Constitution which 
defines the qualifications of the President. 

79. When does the office of the President devolve 
on the Vice-President? 



854 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

80. ^What does the Constitution say in reference 
to the compensation of the President? 

81. What are the words of the oath administered 
to the President? 

82. What are the powers and the duties of the 
President? 

83. Who are Hable to impeachment? 

84. Who are meant by officers of the United 
States ? 

85. Does this include members of Congress? 

86. What officers of the United States are there 
besides civil officers? 

8/. Are the officers of the Army and Navy Hable 
to impeachment? 

88. Who ai-'e the persons chiefly meant besides the 
President and Vice-President? 

89. For what offences are these officers Hable to 

impeachment? 

90. What is the penalty in case of impeachment? 

91. Where is the Judicial power oi the United 
States vested? 

92. What are the inferior courts called? 

93. In what does treason against the United 
States consist? 

94. What is necessary in order to convict a person 

of treason? 

95. What provision is made in regard to the pun- 
ishment of treason? 

96. What has Congress declared to be the punish- 
ment for treason against the United States? 

97. What limit is placed to the punishment of 

treason? 

98. What is meant by an attainder of treason ? 

99. What is meant by corruption of blood ? 

100. What shall the United States guarantee to 
every State in this Union? 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON CIVIL 
GOVERNMENT- 

1. The act of governing ; the exercise of authori- 
ty; the administration of laws ; control; direction; re- 
straint ; regulation ; as, civil, church, or family govern- 
ment. 

Webster. 

2. Governments are necessary evils. Their neces- 
sity arises out of the selfishness and stupidity of man- 
kind. 

Politics for Young Americans, Nordhoff, p. 20. 

3. Governments are of different kinds : Despot- 
ism, where the will of one man is the law ; Oligarchies, 
where a few make the laws for those subordinate to 
them; and free or popular governments, where the laws 
are made by the people, or rather by persons they se- 
lect for that purpose. 

Id.^ p. 20. 

4. There were originally three different forms of 
government in the colonies, namely : The charter, the 
proprietary, and the royal governments. 

Kings Commentmy on the Federal Constitution, p. jj'j. 

5. The charter governments were composed of a 
governor, deputy-governor, and assistants elected by 
the people. In the proprietary governments, the power 
of appointing officers and making laws rested in the pro- 
prietors, by the advice and consent, generally of the 

355 



356 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

freemen. ^ In the royal governments the governor and 
council were appointed by the crown, and the people 
elected representatives to the colonial legislature. 

Id,, p. 356. 

6. Laws are expressions of the controlling will, 
which become rules of action for the governed. 

Martin's Civil Govefnment, p. ij. 

7. A state is a community of persons living within 
certain limits of territory, under a permanent organiza- 
tion, which aims to secure the prevalence of justice by 
self-imposed laws. 

Id., p. 14. 

8. Civil government is control by law, exercised 
by a state over its members. 

Id., p. 14, 

9. The principles or fundamental laws which gov- 
ern a state or other organized body of men, and are em- 
bodied in written documents, or implied in the institu- 
tions and usages of. the country or society ; organic 

law. 

Webster, 

10. In September, 1788. 

11. The Preamble. 

12. "We, the People of the United States, in order 
to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure 
domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, 
promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of 
liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and 
establish this Constitution for the United States of 
America." 

13. The object of the Preamble is to set forth the 
purposes for which the Constitution was adopted. 

1st. To lorm a more perfect union. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 351 

2d. To establish justice. 
3d. To insure domestic tranquillity. 
4th. To provide for the common defence. 
5th. To promote the general welfare. 
6th. And to secure the blessings of liberty to 
ourselves and our posterity. 

15. Into three : Legislative, Executive and Judi- 
cial. 

16. The Legislative makes the laws, the Executive 
carries the laws into effect, and the Judicial interprets 
the laws. 

17. To the Legislative Department. 

18. "All Legislative powers herein granted, shall 
be vested in a Congress of the United States, which 
shall consist of a Senate and House ol Representatives. 

19. The two Houses of Congress act as a check 
upon each other. 

20. Every second year. 

21. By the people of the several states. 

22. That they may come more frequently and more 
directly under the supervision of popular opinion. 

Hart's Exposition of the Constitution, p. 18, 

23. No person shall be a Representative, who shall 
not have attained to the age of twenty-five years. 

24. He must have been seven years a citizen of the 
United States, and must, when elected, be an inhabitant 
of that State in which he is chosen. 

25. According to their respective numbers. 

26. "The number of Representatives shall not ex- 
ceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall 
have at least one Representative." 

27. The Executive of that State shall issue writs of 
election to fill such vacancies. 

28. By the House itself. 



858 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

29. The House has the sole power of impeachment. 

30. It is the right which the Representatives 
have to bring an accusation against high officers of gov- 
ernment, for maladministration of office. 

Harfs Exposition of the Constitution, p, 2^, 

31. No. They are tried by the Senate. 

32. Of two from each State, or seventy-six in all. 

33. By the Legislatures of the several States. 

34. The Representatives are chosen by the people 
of the States. 

35. For six years. 

36. The Representatives are chosen for only two 
years. 

37. That they may serve as a check upon the 
sudden fluctuations of popular opinion, to which the 
other branch of the Legislature is liable. 

Hart, p. 24. 

38. " Immediately after they shall be assembled, 
in consequence of the first election, they shall be di- 
vided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The 
seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated 
at the expiration of the second year; of the second 
class, at the expiration of the fourth year; and of the 
third class, at the expiration of the sixth year; so 
that one-third may be chosen every second year." 

39. By the appointment of the Legislature of the 
State in whose representation the vacancy may exist. 

40. The Executive of the State may make tem- 
porary appointments until the next meeting of the 
Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

41. {a.) Must be thirty years of age; {b.) Must 
have been a citizen of the United States nine years; 
ic.) and must at the time of his election, be an inhabi- 
tant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK «59 

42. The Vice-President of the United States. 

43. Only when the Senate is equally divided. 

44. " The Senate shall choose their other officers, 
and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of 
the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office 
of President of the United States." 

45. The Chief Justice. 

46. The concurrence of two-thirds of the members 

present. 

47. It shall not extend further than to removal 
from office, and disqualification to hold office under 
the United States. 

48. The party convicted shall, nevertheless, be 
liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and 
punishment, according to law. 

49. The times, places and manner, of holding 
elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be 
prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof 

50. But the Congress may at any time, by law, 
make or alter such regulations, except as to the places 
of choosing Senators. 

51. The Congress shall assemble at least once in 
every year. 

52. On the first Monday in December, unless they 
shall by law appoint another day. 

53. Each house shall be the judge of the elec- 
tions, returns, and qualifications, of its own members. 

54. A majority. 

55. Each House may determine the rules of its 
proceedings. 

56. Each House has the power to punish its mem- 
bers for disorderly behavior; and, with the concur- 
rence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

57. By compelling each House to keep a journal 
of its proceedings, and to publish the same from time 
to time. 



360 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

58. 'By requiring the yeas and nays to be taken on 
any question, at the desire of one-fifth of the mem- 
bers present. 

59. "AH bills for raising revenue shall originate in 
the House of Representatives; but the Senate may 
propose or concur with amendments, as on other 

bills." 

60. It must be presented to the President. 

61. The President must approve and sign it. 

62. He shall return it, with his objections, to that 
House in which it shall have originated, who shall en- 
ter the objections at large on their journal, and pro- 
ceed to reconsider it. 

63. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that 
House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, to- 
gether with the objections, to the other House, by 
which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if ap- 
proved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a 
law. 

64. "If any bill shall not be returned by the Presi- 
dent within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall 
have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, 
in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Con- 
gress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in 
which case it shall not be a law." 

65. Congress shall have power (i) To lay and col- 
lect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the 
debts and provide for the common defence and gen- 
eral welfare of the United States; (2) To borrow 
money on the credit of the United States; (3) To reg- 
ulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
several States, and with the Indian tribes; (4) To es- 
tablish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform 
laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the 
United States; (5) To coin money,regulate the value 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 361 

thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of 
weights and measures; (6) To provide for the punish- 
ment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin 
of the United States; (7) To estabHsh post-offices and 
post-roads; (8) To promote the progress of science 
and useful arts by securing, for Hmited times, to auth- 
ors and inventors the exclusive right to their re- 
spective writings and discoveries? (9) To constitute 
tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; (10) To de- 
fine and punish piracies and felonies committed on the 
high seas, and offences, against the law of nations; (11) 
To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal 
and make rules concerning captures on land and water; 
(12) To raise and support armies; (13) To provide and 
maintain a navy; (14) To make rules for the govern- 
ment and regulation of the land and naval forces; (15) 
To provide for calling forth the mihtia to execute the 
laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel in- 
vasions; (16) To provide for organizing, arming, and 
disciplining the militia, and for governing such part 
of them as may be employed in the service of the 
United States; (17) To exercise exclusive legislation 
in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceed- 
ing ten miles square,) as may, by cession of particular 
States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the 
seat of the Government of the United States, and to 
exercise like authority over all places, purchased by 
the consent of the legislature of the State in which 
the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, 
arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; (18) 
To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper 
for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and 
all other powers vested by this Constitution in the 
Government of the United States, or in any depart- 
ment or officer thereof 



302 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

66, , Powers denied to the United States: 

(i) The migration or importation of such per- 
sons, as any of the States, now existing, shall think 
proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Con- 
gress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such 
importation not exceeding ten dollars. 

(2) The privilege of the writ of habeas cor- 
pus shall not be suspended unless when, in cases of re- 
bellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. 

(3) No bill of attainder, or ex-post facto law^ 

shall be passed. 

(4) No capitation or other direct tax, shall be 
laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumera- 
tion, herein before directed to be taken. 

(5) No tax or duty shall be laid on articles ex- 
ported from any State. No preference shall be given 
by any regulation of commerce or revenue, to the ports 
of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels 
bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear^ 
or pay duties, in another. 

(6) No money shall be drawn from the treas- 
ury, but in consequence of appropriations made by 
law; and a regular statement and account of the re- 
ceipts and expenditures of all public money shall be 
published, from time to time. 

(7) No title of nobility shall be granted by the 
United States: And no person, holding any office of 
profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent 
of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, 
office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, 
prince, or foreign state. 

6^. Powers denied to the States: 

(i) No State shall enter into any treaty, alli- 
ance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and 



THE XOIIMAL QUESTION BOOK iJUa 

reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any- 
thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
debts, pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or 
law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any 
title of nobility. 

(2) No State shall, without the consent of the 
Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or ex- 
ports, except what may be absolutely necessary for 
executing its inspection laws. 

(3) No State shall, without the consent of C on- 
gress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep troops or ships of 
war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or 
compact with another State, or with a foreign power, 
or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such 
imminent danger, as will not admit of delay. 

6Z, The Executive power shall be vested in a 
President of the United States. 

69. For four years. 

70. The Vice-President. 

71. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as 
the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of Elec- 
tors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Rep- 
resentatives, to v^hich the State may be entitled in the 
Congress. 

72. Senators, Representatives, and all persons 
holding any office of trust or profit under the United 
States. 

73. The Electors shall meet in their respective 
States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice- 
President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an in- 
habitant of the same State with themselves; they 
shall name in their ballots the person voted for as 
President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for 
as Vice-President; and they shall make distinct lists 
of all persons voted for as President, and of all per- 



364 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

sons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number 
of votes for each, which Hsts they shall sign, and cer- 
tify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the govern- 
ment of the United States, directed to the President 
of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in 
the presence of the Senate and House of Represent- 
atives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall 
then be counted. 

74. A majority of the whole number. 

75. The House of Representatives shall elect a 
President. 

^6. By States; the Representation from each 
State having but one vote. 

JJ. A majority of all the States. 

78. No person, except a natural-born citizen, or 
a citizen of the United States at the time of the adop- 
tion of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office 
of President; neither shall any person be eHgible to 
that office who shall not have attained to the age of 
thirty-five ye^rs, and been fourteen years a resident 
within the United States. 

79. In case of the removal of the President from 
office, or of his death, resignation, or inabihty to dis- 
charge the powers and duties of the said office, the 
same shall devolve on the Vi,ce-President. 

80. The President shall, at stated times receive 
for his services, a compensation, which shall neither be 
increased nor diminished during the period for which 
he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that period, any other emolument from the 
United States, or any of them. 

81. "I do solemnly swear (or affirm), that I will 
faithfully execute the office of President of the United 
States and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 365 

protect, and defend the Constitution of the United 
States." 
82. 

1. The President shall be commander-in-chief 
otthe army and navy of the United States, and of the mili- 
tia of the several States, when called into the actual service 
of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writ- 
ing, of the principal officer in each of the executive de- 
partments, upon any subject relating to the duties of 
their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant 
reprieves and pardons for offences against the United 
States, except in cases of impeachment. 

2. He (the President) shall have power, by and 
with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, 
provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he 
shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of 
the Senate, shall appoint embassadors, other public 
ministers, and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, 
and all other officers of the United States, whose ap- 
pointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and 
which shall be established by law : but the Congress 
may by law vest the appointment of such inferior offi- 
cers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the 
courts of law, or in the heads of Departments. 

3. The President shall have the power to fill up 
vacancies that may happen, during the recess of the 
Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at 
the end of their next session. 

4. He shall, from time to time, give to the Con- 
gress information of the state of the Union, and recom- 
mend to their consideration such measures as he shall 
judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordi- 
nary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, 
and in case of disagreement between them, with respect 



30b THE N0R3[AL QUESTION BOOK. 

to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to 
such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive 
embassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take 
care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall com- 
mission all the officers of the United States. 

83. The President, Vice-President, and all civil of- 
ficers of the United States. 

84. Officers deriving their appointments from the 
National Government. 

85. No. 

S6. Officers of the Army and Navy. 
Sy. They are not. 

88. Heads of Departments ; Judgesof the Supreme 
Court; Marshals, Collectors, District Attorneys, etc. 

89. For treason, bribery, or other high crimes and 
misdemeanors. 

90. Removal from office, and disqualification to 
hold office in future. 

91. In one Supreme Court, and in such inferior 
courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain 
and establish. 

92. District Courts and Circuit Courts. 

93. Treason against the United States shall consist 
only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their 
enemies, giving them aid and comfort. 

p4. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless 
on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, 
or on confession in open court. 

95. The Congress shall have power to declare the 
punishment of treason. 

96. Death by hanging. 

97. No attainder of treason shall work corruption 
of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the per- 
son attainted. 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 861 

98. Conviction of the crime of treason. 

Hart on the Constitution. 

99. One, whose blood is corrupted, can not inherit 
property from others, nor transmit an inheritance to his 
children ; his blood ceases to have any inheritable qual- 
ities. 

Id. 
100. The United States shall guarantee to every 
State in this Union a Republican form of Government, 
and shall protect each of them against invasion ; and, on 
application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when 
the Legislature can not be convened), against domestic 
violence. 



APPENDIX. 



RULES TO BE OBSERVED AT EXAMINATIONS. 



CONTBIBUTED BY G. DALLAS LIND. 



1. Of course the teacher should always keep his person as neat 
and clean as possible and dress, not foppishly, not necessarily in 
costly clothes, but neatly, plainly and as well as his circumstances 
will justify. There are times when the teacher, like other persons 
may become careless of dress and appearance, but that time should 
not be when he goes to Examination. Horace Greeley was careless 
in dress and Henry Clay Dean is as filthy as a man can well be, 
but we should copy the sjood points and not the faults of great men. 
A generous use of soap and water and attention to the "real estate' 
which is apt to accumulate under the finger nails are points worthy 
of the teacher's notice. We were not all born with the brain of a 
Greeley, and therefore need other means to aid us through the 

world . 

2. Be on hand early. Better too early than too late. Prompt- 
ness is one of the unfailing signs of a good teacher. Some persons 
are always late, late to rise in the morning, late to bed at night 
late to school, late to Church and Sabbath school, and would be late 
at their own funerals if they were not carried against their will- 
The teacher should not belong to this class. Show by your prompt- 
ness at Examinations what you will probably be at your school. 
Learn a lesson from the man who missed the morning train. 

3. Keep cool. If you get excited you cannot tell half you 
know. Never think of the outcome ot your work, but think only 
of what you are to do at the present moment, knowing that the 
outcome will depend entirely upon how well you perform each 
step. Do the best you can, and do not worry about the rest Ex- 
citement will spoil many an answer, and you will say many things 
you do not believe and would not say in calmer moments. Your 

371 



872 , APPENDIX. 

memory will forsake you, and you will not be able to recall the 
name of your grand-mother if you are scared. 

4. Obey strictly the rules of tlie Examination. If you are 
seen to whisper to another or violate any of the rules laid down for 
you, it will be taken as evidence that you are trying to practice 
fraud, though your intentions may be far from any such thin^. 
Above all things do not be tempted to use any unfair means, what- 
ever. Your work is expected to sliow honestly what you are capa- 
ble of doing and nothing more. Do not give the Examiner any 
ground for suspicion in this respect. 

5. Write legibly. No one cares about puzzling his brains and 
wasting his time over hieroglyj^hics that look like antediluvian bird 
tracks and when deciphered possess no ethmological interest, what- 
ever. It was no credit to Horace Greeley that there was but one 
man in the United States who could read his manuscript. One 
should cultivate the power of writing rapidly, yet plainly. 

6. Be very careful about the use of capital letters, spelling and 
punctuation. A great many of the errors in this respect are made 
through carelessness, slips of the pen which may be avoided. 
When you have finished a subject examine your work carefully and 
you will be very apt to find some errors. 

7. Be careful about the neatness of your manuscript. Blots and 
finger marks do not speak well for any one. 

8. Confine your mind as closely as possible to your work. Do 
not let it wander off UDon other subjects. This is one of the quali- 
ties of genius, to be able to concentrate the mind upon one point 
until it is elaborated. Yet do not present the appearance of being 
puzzled or weary. Sit still and work calmly and quietly, as though 
you knew perfectly what you were about. Do not be caught twirl- 
ing your hair withyourfingers,drummingon the table, or with your 
head resting on your hand. 

9. If you are allotted a certain time on each branch, occupy 
all the time given you. If you get through before the time is up, 
review your work critically, making such corrections and additions 
as you may find necessary. There is much to be gained by a criti- 
cal study of your own productions. 

10. Do not guess at the answer of a question. "Guess work is 
as good as any when it hits," is the saying, but it rarely ever hits^ 
and you would better leave the paper blank than return it filled with 
guesses, even though some of them may hit the mark. It is a bad 
habit to get into, that of guessing at things. 



APPENDIX. 373 

11. Write out as much as possible of your work. If you can 
tell what you know clearly and briefly in writing, it is a mark of 
ability. But do not be verbose. Tell what you have to tell in as 
few words as consistent with clearness. Be pointed in all answers 
to questions. Avoid ambiguity of expression. Use short sentences. 
Write upon the question before you and upon nothing else. 

13. As far as possible, write the answer to each question on sep- 
arate slips of paper, so that you can arrange them in order when 
you have finished. If your paper is in large sheets better tear in 
smaller slips. When you have arranged them in order, number the 
pages and fasten them together at the top. Write upon one side of 
the paper only. 

13. On receiving your paper of questions read it over carefully. 
Take the easiest question first and write the answer, then the next 
easiest, leaving the most difficult until the last. The hardest may 
come first on the paper and the candidate spend the whole of his time 
puzzling over it, or until he gets nervous and frightened, when he 
will not be able to answer the others, although they may all be 
easy. 

14. In exercises in Grammar, write out the parsing or analysis 
in full, abbreviating terms only. For example, in the sentence 
"Mary milks the cow," parse cow thus: Cow, n., com., 3rd., sing., 
fern., obj., object of v. milks. R., A noun or pronoun, &c. 

In Arithmetic, write out the analysis of examples clearly, 
giving your full work on the same paper. You will be judged not 
so much by the correctness of your final result, as you will by the 
process you used to obtain it. If your analysis be correct a mis- 
take in the figures aftecting the final result will not be of so much 
consequence. 

15. Do not study too much the week previous to the Examina- 
tion. If you tax your mind too much you will not have the clear- 
ness of perception and mental power you would otherwise have. 
Especially do not sit up late the night before to study. Go to bed 
early and think as little as possible about the work of the morrow, 

16. Eat a light supper the night before, and your sleep will be 
sounder and you will have fewer dreams, and consequently you will 
rise more refreshed and better able to cope with intellectual prob- 
lems. Eat lightly at breakfast and dinner oh Examination day. It 
would be well to observe this rule through life. 



HINTS ON" THE PREPARATION OF MANUSCPJPTS. 



CONTRIBUTED BY G. DALLAS LIND. 



There are comparatively few persons who know how to write 
a letter, and a still less number who know how to write an article 
for the press. Postmasters are aware of the fact that few know how 
to back a letter properly, and editors and publishers are painfully 
aware that few know how to prepare a manuscript for publication. 
It is humiliating, but true, that a large proportion of our teachers 
are remarkably deficient in such knowledge. It is something 
strange for the means of instruction are not wanting. Perhaps it is 
because there are few text-books which give the required informa- 
tion in a tangible and connected form. All grammars give the 
rules for capital letters. Spelling is taught from infancy up. Rules 
for punctuation are given in grammars. Yet in these three points 
do all most err. Works on rhetoric give the necessary information 
in regard to arrangement, style, etc., but the ordinary teacher does 
not always make use of such a text-book. Perhaps the greatest 
reason for this ignorance, is the lack of a feeling of the importance 
which should be attached to the subject. Too many scarcely ever 
devote a moment's thought to the matter. They write their letters 
and never read them over to see how they look. The teacher should 
make it a point in common schools and primary schools, generally 
to teach the use of the period and capital letters. This much can 
be taught to very young children. As they grow older and are 
able to wield the pen with some degree of facility, they can learn 
and pains should be taken to teach them to properly back a letter, 
fold, address and sign the name. 

Frequent exercises should be given in writing sentences and 
words, until they become as familiar with the appearance of words 

374 



APPENDIX. 375 

and sentences in manuscript as they are with the alphabet. Were 
teachers more interested in this branch of learning, there would be 
less ignorance among the masses in this respect. 

We append a few rules, which, if followed, will be of benefit 
to the tyro in this branch : 

1. In writing any kind of a manuscript which . you expect oth- 
er eyes to read, whether a letter of friendship or business, an article 
for the press, or any matter you wish to preserve, use a pen and 
black ink and white or light colored paper. It is a kind of insult 
to write to a person with a pencil, and most articles sent to the 
press so written, go to the waste basket. 

2. Learn to write in straight lines without ruling. All paper 
would be better if made without being ruled. The eye should be 
trained to guide the hand straight across the page without the aid 
of ruled lines. They only mar the beauty of a written page. The 
custom of writing on ruled paper has spoiled most persons, so that 
when they come to address an envelope where there are no ruled 
lines, they are sure to go crooked. 

3 . Of course you should spell every word correctly. It is best 
for beginners to have a dictionary by their side when writing, and 
every word about which there is a doubt, should be looked up. It 
should be made an unpardonable sin to misspell words in composi- 
tion, when there are so many dictionaries in the land. Study the 
rules for the use of capital letters. They are very simple and no 
one who pretends to any learning, or to teach, should be ignorant of 
them. When you have written a sentence read it over and see that 
you have made no slips of the pen. These are very common, such 
as omitting one of the final letters of a word or adding a letter to a 
word, omitting one of the letters when they are doubled, etc. Not 
only read over each sentence as you write it, but read the composi- 
tion over one or more times when you are through. It is a good 
habit, one we have been accustomed to for a long time, to read over 
every paragraph, as soon as written, then every page or a number 
of paragraphs together. You are sure to find some errors in this 
way, not only slips of the pen, but errors in spelling, capitalization, 
punctuation, grammar, etc. Get into the habit of criticising your 
own work. 

4. In regard to punctuation, little need be said. It is easy to 
learn the use of the principal point, the period. Never use long 
sentences. Short sentences are easily managed, long ones are not 



376 APPENDIX. 

There is scarcely any use for the semi-colon and colon. The use of 
the comma is somewhat arbitrary. The most common uses, how- 
ever, should not be neglected. The terms of a closely related series, 
or wherever the connective is omitted, or in general, wherever any 
word is omitted there should be a comma. Terms which are con- 
trasted should be separated by a comma, also words used independ- 
ently should be set off by commas. The uses of the exclamation 
and interrogation points are sufficiently obvious. 

Never divide a syllable at the end of the line and place a 
hyphen after a syllable at the end of the line when |the remainder 
of the word is carried to the next line. For the use of the hyphen 
m compound words, you must go to the dictionary. Under score 
every word you wish printed in italics, with two lines if in small 
3apitals, three lines if in large capitals. 

5. In commencing a manuscript, begin the first line an inch or 
more from the margin of the paper. Every other line in the same 
paragraph should commence nearer the margin of the paper and 
should be kept as nearly even as possible. 

You can use your own judgment about paragraphing. You 
may put more than one subject in the same paragTaph, but it is not 
best to make a new paragraph where the sense is closely connected. 

6. It is not a good idea to write and then copy, except for very 
young beginners. It is best to form a habit at once of writing cor- 
rectly, and of so analyzing and arranging your subject in the mind 
that you may write it but once. You are almost as apt to make 
mistakes in copying and the time is lost. If the composition is to 
be an essay or any other species of writing, except an ordinary let- 
ter it is well to make an outline first, a kind of skeleton which you 
can elaborate and clothe at your will. 

7. If you have made a mistake in spelling, correct, when possi- 
ble, without re-writing the word. If it is a letter or letters omitted 
supply them in the line above, using a caret to show where they 
should be inserted. If a letter is not needed strike it out by draw- 
ing a slanting line through it. If the word can not be corrected in 
this way, or it the wrong word is used, draw your pen through it 
horizontally and re-write it in the space above, or after the word if 
the mistake is discovered in time. 

8. If writing for publication, write on one side of the paper 
only. It is best to use small half sheets about the size of commer- 



APPENDIX. 877 

cial note paper. Observe rules 5 and 7 of "Rules to be observed 
at Examinations." (p.373.) Be especially particular to write proper 
names legibly. The proof reader has no means of finding out 
whether you mean "Mr. Baker," "Mr. Barker," or "Mr. Bunker." 
He may guess from the connection what other words, badly written 
are, but proper names he can tell nothing about. Always send your 
own name with the MS., not necessarily for publication but the ed- 
itor must know who is responsible for the composition. 

9 . In writing a business letter, be brief and pointed, yet use 
words enough to make your meaning plain . Come at once to the 
point without any preliminary remarks. If an order for goods, be 
careful to make figures plain and always give your full name, post- 
oflace, county and State, and number of house and street, if in a 
city. Observe the same rule, in addressing the letter. It is best 
generally where sums of money are mentioned to write the amount 
in words and figures both, enclosing the figures in a parenthesis. 

10. As a general rule in writing, use common words and such as 
convey your meaning best. If you have a natural talent for word 
painting and can use flowery and ornate language, remember that 
it is all out of place in any kind of business correspondence. If 
you wish to let your Pegasus fly take the opportunity to do so, when 
you write to some indulgent friend or write a love letter. The more 
Anglo Saxon terms you use the better. Avoid Latin and French 
phrases as much as possible. In writing an essay upon any subject 
arrange your matter in the form of an outline as suggested in rule 
6, saying all you wish to under each head before commencing 
another. In letter writing, however, you are at liberty to say what- 
ever comes first to your mind. A letter of friendship, may be some- 
thing as you would talk to your correspondent if he were present. 

11. To fold a sheet to go in an envelope you must be guided of 
course by the size of your sheet and envelope, but for example take 
the ordinary commercial note paper and the common business en- 
velope, and you will fold it thus : Turn the bottom of the sheet up 
one third of the way, then turn the top third down over the bottom 
and middle thirds thus making three folds, and you will find it not 
only conveniently fit the envelope, but come exactly to the hand of 
the opener of the letter. 

12. In addressing an envelope, never get above the median line, 
commencing the name near enough the left margin to get all the 
name and title on the same line. Never commit the unpardonable 



878 



APPENDIX. 



offense of getting a person*s name or name and title on different 
lines. 

Your envelope when directed should look something like the 
following ; 




Mr. John Smith, 

DANVILLE, 
Hendricks Co. IND. 



PROGRAMME. 



CONTRIBUTED BY F. P. ADAMS. 



Every man, in whatever line of business, should work by a 
programme. In consideration of the importance of the teacher's 
work wad the vast amount to be done in so short a time, the neces- 
sity of closely following a programme can not be overestimated. 
The teacher should write in a conspicuous place a programme for 
the whole school, both for recitations and study. The same pro- 
gramme will not answer for any two schools. The following, though 
evidently not perfect, is intended to be suggestive. 

The school can be separated into four grades on the subject 
of Arithmetic. The abcdarians may be called the counting class or 
D Grade ; the class in addition will constitute the C Grade ; the 
class in division, the B Grade; and the class in fractions, the A 
Grade . 

We give on the next page a Daily Programme of Recitations and 
Studies. 

KXPLANATIONS. 

1. The recitations are indicated by iialic type. 

2. The time of commencing the recitations is given in the first 
column. 

3. It is considered that the History classes can recite at the same 
time ; also the two Geography classes at the same time. 

4. It is presumed that the History and Physiology lessons can 
be prepared out of school. The teacher is measurably a failure it 
his pupils do not carry their books home with them and study 
them at night. 

5. It \s thought best to have pupils study a lesson immediately 
after recitation, rather than just before. The full benefit will thus 
be derived from the prelimiaary drills which are given by every 
successful teacher. 

379 



880 



APPENDIX. 






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OUTLINE OF PERCENTAGE. 



CONTRIBUTED BY LINA HTNKS. 



[The following outline is complete and sufficiently clear, we 
think, to be understood, if carefully studied.] 

1 1 Definition. That division of Arithmetic in which on« 
hundred is taken as the basis of computation. 
21 General rule. 

I. "Determine from the conditions of the problem that 
quantity which 100 per cent, will best represent. 

II. "Reason from many to one and from one to many^ as 
the nature of the question may require." 
3i Terms employed. 
12 Percent. 
13 Definition: a term derived from the Latin words 
per centum^ signifying hy the hundred. 
23 Symbol=%. 
22 Base. 
13 Definition; that quantity on which percentage is 
computed. 

23 Symbol =B. 
32 Rate. 

13 Definition: that quantity which expresses the num- 
ber of hundredths to be considered. 
23 Symbol=R. 
43 Percentage. 

1 3 Definition : that part of the base which is indicated 
by the per cent. 

23 Symbol=P. 
52 Sum, or Amount. 

381 



382 APPENDIX, 

13 Definition : the base j9Zws the percentage. 
23 Symbol=S. or Am't. 
62 Difierence. 
1 3 Definition : the base minus the percentage. 
23 Symbol=D. 
41 Cases. 

12 Case I. 

13 Quantities given. 
14 Base. 

24 Rate. 

23 Quantity required : Percentage. 
33 Formula: P.=B.xR. 

43 Example. (Prob. 1, p. 231, French). 
U Statement: Find 20% of960bu. 
24 Solution: 
Let 100 % =960 bu. 
Then 1 % =-Tro- of 960 bu.,=9.6 bu. 
20% =20 times 9.6 bu.,=192 bu. 
34 Conclusion : .-. 20 per cent, of 960 bu. is 192 bu. 
22 Case II. 

1 3 Quantities given. 

14 Base. 24 Percentage. 
23 Quantity required : Rate.' 

33 Formula. R.=P.«;;-1 per cent, of B. 
43 Example. (Prob. 11, p. 232, French). 
14 Statement : 17 is what per cent, of 511 

24 Solution : 

Let 51=100 per cent. 

Then 1=3V of 100%*=ig^ per cent; 

17=17 times Yl^ per cent.=38l^ per cent. 
34 Conclusion: •.• 17 is 3353- per cent, of 51. 
39 Case III. 

1 3 Quantities given. 

14 Rate. 24 Percentage. 
23 Quantity required : Base. 
38 Formula: B.=P.«-R. 



miles. 



(100— R). 



APPENDIX. 88a 

43 Example. (Prob. 18, p. 233, French). 
14 Statement . 465 mi. is 15 per cent, of how many 

24 Solution : 

Let 100 per cent.=the req. num. of mi. 

Since 15 per cent.=465 mi., 

and 100 per cent.=100 times 31 mi.,=3100 mi. 
84 Conclusion: •/ 465 mi. is 15 per cent, of 3100 

42 Case IV. 

13 Quantities given. 
14 Base. 24 Rate. 

23 Quantity required: Am't or DifF. 
33 Formulae. 

14 When the amount is required: Am't. B.== X (100 

24 Wlien the difference is required : Diff. =B. X 



43 Examples. (Prob. 25, p. 234, French). 

14 When the amount is required. 

15 Statement: Given, the B.== 125, R.=25 per 
cent., to find the amount. 

25 Solution. 
16 Preliminary work: 100 per cent. +25 per 
cent.=^125 per cent.=Am't. 

26 Solution proper: 
Let 100 per cent. =125. 
1 per cent.= i-j7j- of 125=1.25; 
125 per cent.=125 times 1.25=137.5. 
85 Conclusion: •.* 137.5 is the amount of 125 
plm 25 per cent. 

24 When the difference is required. 

15 Statement: Given, the B.=125, R 25 per 

cent., to find the difference. 

2i Solution. 

16 Preliminary work: 100 per cent.— 25 per 
cent.=75 per cent. 



S84 



APPENDIX. 



26 Solution proper . 
Let 100 per cent._125. 
Then 1 per cent.^^i^ of 135,=_1.25; 75 per 
cent._75 times 1.25,_94.75. 

3 5 Conclusion : .-. 94.75 is the difference of 125 
and 25 per cent. 

52 CaseY. 
1 3 Quantities. 

14 Eate. 24 Amount or difference. 
23 Quantity required: Base. 
S3 Formulae. 
1 4 When the amount is given. 

B._A.'-?-(100-|-R.). 
24 When the difference is given: B.==.D. : 

43 Examples. (Prob. 33, p. 235, French). 
14 When the amount is given. 

1 6 Statement : 267.5 is 7 per cent, more than 

2S Solution: 
Let 100 per cent.^he required number. 
100 per cent. -f- 7 per cent.^107 per cent 
Since 107 per cent.^267.5. 

1 per cent.._^-i^ of 267.5,^2.5; 

100 per cent.==100 times 2.5,^,250. 
Conclusion : .*. 267.5 is 7 per cent, more 



(100— R,). 



^hat number? 



86 



than 250. 



what number? 



24 When the difference is given, 

1 5 Statement : 267.5 is 7 per cent, less than 

25 Solution: 

Let 100 per cent.,==the required number. 

100 per cent. — 7 per cent.=93 per cent. 

Since 93 per cent.=267.5, 

1 percent._^ of 267.5_2.865+; 

100 per cent.^lOO times 2.865, -l-_286.5-}-. 
8 6 Conclusion : . •. 267.5 is 7 per cent, less than 



286.7. 



APPENDIX. 385 

51 Applications. 

12 Insurance. 22 Commission and Brokerage. 
32 Profit and Loss. 43 Stocks. 52 Taxes and Duties. 
G2 Interest. 72 Discount. 82 Government Securities. 
93 Banking. 102 Excliange. 
112 Equation of Payments. 



CARTOaRAPHY. 



CONTRIBUTED BY DORA LIEUELLEK. 



Map Drawing. 
1 1 . Materials. 
12 Paper, is Flat-cap. 23 Brown. 
22 Rulers. 

13 Straight — a scale of twelve or fourteen inches. 
23 Flexible — a piece of rattan or strip of zinc will 
answer. 

32 Lead-pencil — Faber No. 3, with an eraser. 
42 India-ink. Prepare it by dropping four or five drops 
of rain-water on a smooth piece of glass, then, holding the stick of 
ink between the fingers, rub the glass until the water is black. 
This will be as much as any one will use in two hours. 
21 Rules. 

12 Determine the scale. 

1 3 The map should never be drawn the same size ot 
tlie one in the book. 

23 One and a half times this is a convenient size, if 
fiat-cap be used. 

22 The border-lines. 
1 3 The inner lines should be drawn first. 

14 Determine the exact length of the north and ea^st 
lines on the map. 

24 Make due allowance for the increased or decreased 
size. 

34 Draw the rectangle and ascertain the latitude and 
longitude of its angles. 

23 The outer border-line. 14 Should not be drawn 

886 



APPENDIX. 887 

until the map is complete. 24 Should be heavier than other 
lines. 

33 The center-line . 

13 In all well-constructed maps there is a straight 
line passing from north to south through the center. This is the 
center meridian, and should be drawn and numbered accordingly. 

42 Parallels. 

13 By careful measurement determine the points at 
which each cuts the inner border-lines and the center meridian. 

23 Using the flexible ruler, draw a line through these 
points. 

33 Number the parallels at their eastern extremities- 
62 Meridians. 

13 Select the parallel nearest the center of the map. 

23 Determine the points at which the meridians east 
of the center cut the inner border-lines and this parallel; measure 
the same distances upon these lines west of the center-line. 

33 Through these points draw the meridians. These 
should be numbered at their northern extremities. 
62 Out-line. 

13 Establish the key-'points in the rectangles formed 
by the crossings of the parallels and meridians. 

14 Begin at the north-west corner of the map, de- 
termine the latitude and longitude of a town, cape, mouth of a riv- 
er, or some other important locality, and place it in the correspond- 
ing position on the new map. 

24 Locate a number of these points at convenient in- 
tervals; if the coast is very irregular, many; if comparatively free 
from indentations, /ew?, 

34 Carefully observing the model, unite these with 
a zigzag line, continuing in this manner until the entire outline is 
completed. 

73 Islands. 

1:^ These may be drawn in the same manner as the 
continents. 

23 As the physical and political features are added 
to the continent, so should they be to the islands. 

33 The outlines of the natural divisions and reliefs 
should be retraced in ink. 
83 Mountains. 

13 There are many pretty ways to represent them. 



388 , APPENDIX. 

Care should be taken to leave no one in doubt concerning the im- 
portance of the range or peak, as it may be. 

1 4 Single rows of widely scattered "fine divergent" 
lines represent Mils. 

24 Double rows, mountain ranges., several of these 

peakt* 



84 Several heavy strokes, shaded with lighter ones. 



93 Deserts. 

1 3 Determine the area covered, then dot with a pen. 

23 The oases should not be colored. 
102 Lakes. 

1 3 Determine their position and draw their outline. 

23 The coast line shaded with several lines adds much 
to the effect. 

113 Rivers. 

1 3 Determine the most important systems. 

23 Observe through what parts of the rectangles they 

wend their way. 

33 Draw the important branches, noticing that each 
widens at its mouth, and the width of the main river is increased 
by the blending of their waters. 
123 Political divisions. 

13 Trace the boundaries in a dotted line in lead or ink. 
23 Represent the capital by a circle within a circle, the 
principal cities by a single small circle. Other plans will suggest 
themselves. 

133 Key. 
13 No names should be placed upon the map. If the 
memory needs an aid this is a good one. 

14 Prepare a slip of paper — one-fourth of a sheet of 
foolscap folded lengthwise. 

24 Number the locality in lead, on the map, place a 
corresponding number on the Kei/, after it the name neatly written. 
34 After completing it in this manner, it may be 
fastened to the left corner at the bottom of the map. 
31 Order. 

12 Indiana, or native State. 
22 South America. 
33 Australia. 





APrENDIX. 




42 


Africa. 




52 


Asia. 




62 


Europe. 14 Empires. 24 


Republics. 34 



889 



King- 



doms. 



72 North America. 

82 United States. 

14 Remark: — For this, Bristol board is used. 
The foregoing rules and remarks are designed to aid those 
who wish a course in map-drawing^ where, as we understand it, 
neatness in general appearance and accuracy in execution are de- 
sired as well as knowledge of location. We would not have it so, 
but should any one desire the latter only this might seem too tedi- 
ous ; to such we recommend the more expeditious process — Sketch- 
ing — which is made comparatively simple by the use of the paral- 
lels and meridians. 



SCALE OF CRITICISM. 



CONTRIBUTED BY F. P. ADAMS. 



The following is a scale of criticism for use in Rhetoric and 
Literature Classes of the Central Normal College. The teacher, in 
looking over the essays, notes the mistakes by the use of figures; 
tlius, 1 placed over a word denotes incorrect spelling; 2, wrong use 
of capital ; 27, obsolete word, etc. 

It is not supposed that every teacher will find use for the en- 
tire scale ; but it may assist some in making out one for themselves. 
Only a few of the points should be used in criticising the essays ^ 
beginners. 





I. ORTHOG 


UtAPHY, c 


APITAT,R, ETC. 


1. 


Spelling. 


5. 


Word divided. 


3. 


Capitals. 


6. 


Paragraphing. 


3. 


Compound. 


7. 


Penmanship. 


4. 


Syllable divided. 








n. 


PUNCTUATION. 


8. 


For sense. 


13. 


For style of type. 


9. 


For abbreviation. 


14. 


For divided word. 


10. 


For possessive. 


15. 


For omission of letters, word* 


11. 


For quotation. 




or sentencea 


12. 


For references. 







m. PURITY. 

The faults against purity are called barbarisma, 

16. Archaisms: selection of obsolete words; as. 
List, wot, trow. 

17. Alienisms : selection of words not domesticated in general 



380 



APPENDIX. 391 

18. Provincialisms : selection of woids used only in certain lo- 
calities; as, tote^ critter^ '•''rigM smart.''' 

19. Teclmicalities : selection of words used only by a particu- 
lar class or profession. *■ 

20. Slang; as, chuck full^ 24. Hybrid; as, hemicirde. 

go it^ cahoot. 25. Faulty formation; as, relu(^ 

21. Newly-corned words; tate. 

as, shootist . 26. Vulgar contraction ; as, Han't 

22. FauHy suffix. for haven't 

23. Faulty prefix. 

rv. PROPRHITY. 

(1 .) Lexical. 

27. Words in obsolete use; as, 
' 'Be buried quick with her." 

28. Words of equivocal meaning; as, 

"TJiis translation was overlooked by many careful scholars." 

29. Words of provincial meaning; as, 

'''■Directly the queen came the performances commenced." 
80. Words in mixed imagery; as, 

''^Hope^ the halm of life, darts a o'ay through the thickest 
gloom." 

31. Synonym with wrong shade of meaning; as, 
''''Tolerate me to introduce my friend, IVIr. Johnson." 

32. Synonym, or other word, inappropriate to style of discourse; 
as, 

"■The distinguished arbiters met, and after a long chaty agreed 
upon the award." 

33. Wrong signification. 

(2.) Grammatical,. 

34. Syntax faulty. 

35. Wrong inflection ; as, 

The clothes was made to order. 

The boys likes to play marbles. 
86. Wrong element; as. 

He ^^okQ firstly of virtue; second of righteousness. 
37. Double use of an element; as, 

'These measures we have considered carefully and are now 
presented for your review." 
88. Ellipsis; as, 

"I had three sons all died in a year." 



«92 APPENDIX. 

39. Pleonasm; as, 
Jolin^ he knows. 

40. Taulology; as, 

He werlcs wlien he does worlz. 

41. Redundancy. This is the use of more words than are neo 
essary. 

V. CONCORD 

42. Subject-words; as, 

He is the man uiTiom they think would make^a good leader 

43. Predicate-words; as, 
Neither of them are sociable. 

44. Pronouns; as, 

Each has their special work. 

45. Appositives; as, 

"The work was John's — him whom they had already cast 
off." 

46. Object- words; as, 
Between you and I. 

47. Expression of time; as. 

They would join his party if they can, 

VI. ARRANGEMENT. 

48. Principal elements. 54. Piirases. 

49. Adjectives. 55. Parts of complex sentence. 

50. Adverbials. 56. Members of compound sen- 

51. Modala. tence. 

52. Objectives. 67. Promiscuous words. 

53. Pronouns. 

VII. PRECISION AND ENERGY. 



58. 


Ambiguous word or 


64. 


Ellipsis obscure. 




phrase. 


65. 


Clearness. 


59. 


Equivocal word or 


66. 


Ambiguous antecedent. 




phrase. 


67. 


Infinitive separated from 


60. 


Faulty definition. 




its sign. 


61. 


Deficiency. 


68. 


Splitting a particle. 


62. 


Strength. 






63. 


Not specific. 






69. 


Uncertain relation of a 


, modifying word, phrase or sentence. 


70. 


Omission or insertion of connective incorrect. 



APPENDIX. 308 

71. Omission or insertion of the article incorrect. 

72. Bad choice of word or phrase. 

73. Verbosity. 

74. Feeble ending. 

75. Feebleness of expression. 

76. Commonplace. 

77. Lack of symmetry ; as, 

"The trader came to buy stock and /or trading.^'' 

78. Anti-climax. 

79. Antithesis faulty. 

80. Negative form of expression. 

Vni. FIGURES. 

81. Mixed imagery. 

83. Inappropriate metaphor. 

83. Trite simile. 

84. Unreasonable figure. 

IX. PROMISCDOUS CRITICISMS. 

85. Abrupt transition. 93. Method. 

86. Euphony. 94. Selection. 

87. Harmony. 95. Completeness. 

88. Elegance. 96. Truthfulness. 

89. Naturalness. 97. Business appearance. 

90. Extravagance. 98. Carelessness. 

91. Continuousness. 99. Promptitude. 

92. Unity. 100. Miscellaneous. 



GRAMMAR. 



CONTRIBUTED BY P. P. ADAMS. 



Shall ths parsing lessons be written? 

On every favorable occasion we declaim against the hum- 
di'um, sing-song plan that some teachers follow of having the reci- 
tations in Grammar made up wholly of the repetition of committed 
rules and definitions and declensions and oral parsings. Some of 
the lessons, or even a part of every lesson, may be oral ; but no pu- 
pil can afford to be without the great advantages that result from 
written lessons. By writing the lessons, (1) the pupils will be more 
likely to prepare the entire work assigned; (2) they will work with 
greater care ; (3) they will accustom themselves to definiteness and 
accuracy of thought; (4) they will improve in (a) reading, (&) writ- 
ing, (e) spelling, (d) punctuation, (e) capitalization, (/) and the 
general appearance of their manuscripts. 

We have tried this in crowded district schools, and we feel 
safe in saying that it pays in economy of time, and yields rich re- 
sults in the points spoken of above. 

Infinitives and Participles. 

To master infinitives and participles is considered by many 
the most difllcult task connected with grammar. It is perplexing 
and amusing to examine and compare the views of a few different 
authors with reference to these difficult parts of speech. We have 
not space to give, at present, the results of such an investigation. 
The best disposition to be made of both infinitives and participles 
is that made by Holbrook, Whitney and Pierce. This disposition 
will be understood by the following rule: "Infinitives and Parti- 
ciples have the constructions of nouns^ adjectives and adverbs.^^ 

OUTLINE. 

Infinitives. 

1 1 Constructions. 



APPENDIX. 89« 

1« Of a noun. 

1 3 Subject of a verb, 

14 '■'To livem hearts we leave behind ts not to die," 
23 In predicate with a verb, 

14 To die is to sleep. 
83 Obiect of a verb, 

14 We want to go to school. 
43 Object of a preposition, 

1 4 He is about to go. 
63 In apposition 
14 With a word, 

1 5 The task to sweep the streets was imposed, 
24 With a phrase, 

15 To shuffle off this mortal coily to cease^ is not so 
pleasant. 
23 Of an adverb 
13 Modifying 
14 A verb, 

15 He came to get grapes. 
24 An adjective, 

1 5 Let us be content to work. 
84 An adverb, 

15 He labored enough to deserve it. 
88 Ot an adjective 
1 3 Limiting 
14 A noun, 

1 There is a time to wmim. 
24 A pronoun, 

1 She appears to be coming. 
We have endeavored in the outline given above, to show that 
every infinitive must have the construction either of an adjective, of 
an adverb, or of a noun. The same position will hold for partici- 
ples. 

If a participle limits a noun or a pronoun it has the con- 
struction or nature of an adjective, since that is the office that an 
adjective performs. 

If it modifies an adjective, an adverb or a verb, then we say 
it has the construction of an adverb. When a participle is the sub- 
ject of a verb, the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, the 



«»6 APPENDIX. 

object of a preposition, or m apposition with a noun or phr&se, then 
we say it has the construction of a noun. 

The following outline shows this view in condensed form. 
Participial constructions, 
li Of a noun. 

13 Subject of a verb. 
22 Object of a trans, verb, 
32 Object of a preposition. 
42 In apposition. 
13 With a noun. 
23 With a phrase. 
21 Of an adjective. 
12 Limiting. 
13 A noun. 
23 A pronoun. 
22 In predicate. 

1 3 With an intransitive verb. 
23 With a passive verb. 
31 Of an adverb, 
12 Limiting 
13 A verb. 

14 Transitive, 
1 5 Active. 
25 Passive. 

• 24 Intransitive. 
23 An adverb. 
33 An adjective. 

AITALTSIS. 

Sentences : 
11 Classes. 

12 As to structure. 
13 Simple. 

1 4 Complete — one whose verb is finite. 
24 Abridged — one whose verb is infinite. 
23 Complex. 
14 Principal. 
24 Subordinate. 
3 3 Compound . 
14 Members. 

1 5 Leading the first member. 



APPENDIX. 397 

2B Co-ordinate — any other than tlie first member. 
• 2^ As to use. 
1 3 Declarative. 
2 3 Imperative. 
83 Interrogative, 
43 Exclamatory. 
2 1 Elements. 
12 Principal. 
13 Subject. 
14 Simple. 
24 Complex. 
34 Compound. 
23 Predicate. 
14 Parts. 
15 Copula. 
2'-i Attribute. 
24 Kinds. 
13 Simple. 
25 Complex. 
35 Compound. 
22 Subordinate. 
13 Kinds. 

1 As to structure. 

15 Simple — one whose base is unmodified. 
25 Complex — one whose base is modified. 
35 Compound — two or more simple or complex 
elements of equal rank, joined by co-ordinate connectives. 

2 As to relation. 

15 Adjective — one which modifies a noun or pro- 
noun. 

25 Adverbial — one which modifies anything |but a 
noun or pronoun, and is not the object of a transitive verb in the 
active voice. 

35 Objective — the object of a transitive active 
verb. 

45 Subjective — objective subject of an infinitive. 
34 As to base. 

15 First class — one whose base is a single word. 

25 Second class — one whose base is a preposition 
and its object or an iufiuitive. 

35 Third class — a complete subordinate sentence. 

GUIDE FOR ANALYSIS. 

1. Read the sentence. 



898 



APPENDIX. 



2. Classify it 



as to form. 



( Simple, 
< Complex, 
( Compound. 



as to use. 



I Declarative, 
I Imperative, 
I Interrogative 
I [ Exclamatory. 

Give the complex subject. 
Give the simple subject. 
Point out its modifiers. 

i Simple. 
as to structure. < Complex, 
( Compound. 
f Adjective, 
I Adverbial, 
I Objective, 
[ Subjective. 
i First class, 
as to base. < Second class, 
( Third class. 

7. Give the base of each modifier and classify its modifiers. 

8. Give the complex predicate. 



6. Classify them -l as to relation. 



Give the simple predicate. 
Point out its modifiers. 



i as to structure, 

11. Classify them s as to relation, 

( as to base. 

12. Give the base and classify its modifiers. 

The class should copy this guide, be drilled on it, and then recite 
the following outline, after which it should be written on the board. 



Kinds of Elements. • 



Kinds of Sentence.' 



as to rank, 1^7^^^^' 

' ( Subordinate. 

i Simple, 

as to structure, < Complex, 

( Compound. 

r Adjective, 

as to relation,] Ad^-^'; 

1^ Subjective. 
C First class, 
as to base. < Second class, 
( Third class. 
f i Simple, 

j as to form, < Complex, 
I ( Compound. 

-! f Declarative, 

j Imperative, 
I Interrogative, 
[ Exclamatory. 



as to use. 



OUTLINE ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 



The following outline on the Objects of the Recitation and 
Qualifications of the Teacher was obtained in the teachers' training 
class, Central Normal College, Danville, Indiana. 
I. Objects of Recitation. 

1. Examination of written work prepared by pupils, 

( Topics, 

2. Testing knowledge of pupils by \ Q^^stions, 

* ^ i' ±' J ^ Written answers, 

[ Reviews, etc. 
8. Imparting additional information. 

1. By Illustrations. 

2. By Conversation. 

3. By Explanation. 

4. By Demonstration, etc. 
4. Cultivation of — 

1. Accurate and ready expression 

r Spelling, 

[ Syntax, etc. 

9 Tn ^r>P«lcin0- i ^^ wearing off embarrassment. 
2. m speaking ^ ^.^j^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ without. 

2. Attention. 

1. By reporting what teacher or pupils have explained 

or illustrated. 

2. By mutual criticism. 

f 1. In walking across the floor. 
j 2. In rising. 



400 APPENDIX. 

f Interest. 
_ A . j Love for study. 

5. Arousing^, Independent thought. 

[ Investigation. 

) Of the timid. 

6. Encouragement > Of the slow. 

) Of the diligent. 

7. Direction of the pupils' work. 

8. Mastery of self. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER. 

1 1 Physical. 

is Good health. 22 Good eyes. 32 Good ears. 42 Good 
voice. 53 Good looks. 
3i Intellectual. 
1 2 Natural. 

1 3 Good common sense. 
14 Adapting one s self to circumstances, both in teach- 
ing and government. 
24 In familiarity with patrons and pupils. 
34 By not enactiug rules which cannot be carried into 

execution. 
44 By not under or overtasking the pupils. 
64 By not pandering to prejudice. 
64 By not making a hobby of any single branch, but 

by making a hobl>y of all. 
74 By not flattering or disparaging, 
84 Teaching hy example as icell as by precept. 
28 Cheerfulness. 33 Firmness. 43 Patience. 53 Soci- 
ability. 63 A love for the work and children. 73 
Power of comparison. S3 Aptness to teach. 
22 Acquired. 

13 Knowledge of human nature. 
23 Knowledge of the common branches. 
33 Knowledge of the sciences. 
43 General knowledge of history. 
53 General knowledge of government. 
63 General knowledge of Miscellaneous subgects. 
31 Moral. 

1 2 Honesty — with God and man. 
22 Temperate in all things. 



APPENDIX. 401 

PERIODS OP THE MIND's DEVELOPMENT. 

ll Objective, in which the child is to be taught by means 
of objects. The length of tiiis period depends upon 
the natural ability of the child and the amount and 
quality of cultivation the mind receives. The ques- 
tion during this period is, What ? 

81 Transition, during which the change is made gradually 
from the Objective to the Subjective. Objects should 
not be excluded during this period. We now have 
the question, Why ? 

81 Subjective, in whicli the mind can grasp abstract sub- 
jects. In which it can divide a subject into its parts 
and study them singly. Illustrations from objects 
not before the eye can he used successfully. 

fHS PERCEPTIVE, REFLECTIVE AKD RETENTIVE FACDIiTIES DEFINED. 

The Perceptives are those faculties with which we observe the 
position, form, size, color, motion, etc., of objects. 

The Retentive faculties aie those by which we retain the impres- 
sions made upon our minds by the exercise of the Perceptives. 

The Reflectives are those faculties by the workings of which one 
is able to compare and contrast things which have come through 
the Perceptives and Retentives. 

TRAINING THE PERCEPTIVE AND RETENTIVE FACULTIES. 

ll Composiiion. 

12 Have pupils write what the teacher does. 

22 Narrat ■ what takfs place during a recitation. 

82 Tell about twelve things you saw on the road to 
school. 

43 Tell about what happened during holidays or Sun- 
day. 

52 Listen to a story read and then reproduce it. 

62 Description of some object placed before the pupils. 

72 Description of some object previously observed by 
the pupils. 

TRAINING THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES IN GEOGRAPHY. 

1. Develop the ideas of boundary and direction by arrang- 
ing objects on the table. 
3. Drill on the direction of objects in the school-room. 
3. Map the school-room. 



iO% APPENDIX. 



4. 


Map the school-grounds. 


6. 


Map the adjoiniDg farms. 


6. 


Map the house and yard of your home. 


7. 


Map the township. 


8. 


Map the county. 


9. 


Map the State. 



TOPIC LIST FOR THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY. 



CONTRIBUTED BY ANNIB M. SHEBBILL. 



Write the list on the board, and have each pupil copy it for 
use duriug the term. In studying the text of the several countries 
assign a certain number of topics to be investigated and reported 
upon at each recitation, instead of assigning the questions in the 
book. 



1. 


Locality. 


2. 


Boundaries. 


8. 


Latitude and Longitude. 


4. 


Duriace, ^ Mountainous or flat. 


5. 


Water sheds. 


6. 


Mountains. 


7. 


Volcanoes. 


8. 


Plateaus. 


•9. 


Plains. 


10. 


Deserts. 


11. 


Peninsulas. 


13. 


Isthmuses, 


13. 


Capes. 


14. 


Islands. 


15. 


Oceans. 


16. 


Seas. 


17- 


Gulfs. 


18. 


Bays. 


19. 


Qf oUa i Connect what ? 
onaiis, ^ ggj^aj.atg ^ij^^ ^ 


20. 


Sounds. 



403 



*0^ APPENDIX. 

01 r«Ko««..i« 3 Connect what ? 
21. Channels, j Separate what ? 

J Situation. 
Classes, | ^^'• 



22. Lakes, -{ ^*"''="'''' ] Fresh. 
Inlet. 
Outlet 



] Streams, ] I"'^*' 



23. Rivers. 

24. Climate. 

25. Soil. 

26* Productions. 9 

27. Animals. 

28. Exports. 

29. Imports. 
ftO. Commerce. 
.SI. Area. 

82. Population. 

83. Nationality. 

34. State of Society. 

35. Political Divisions. 

36. Capitals . 

37. Chief Towns. 

38. Government. 
89. Industries. 

40 . Religion. 

41. Education. 

42. Languages. 

43. Facilities for traveling. 

44. History. 

45. Curiosities. 

C Literature, 

46. State of advancement, \ Science. 

(Art. 

THE VSD» 



CONTENTS . 

PAGES 
Preface 8 

Publisher's Notice 5 

Questions on Orthography 11 

Answers to Questions on Orthography 18 

Questions on Reading 26 

Answers to Questions on Reading 29 

Questions on Arithmetic ', 44 

Answers to Questions on Arithmetic 62 

Questions on Grammar .... 83 

Answers to Questions on Grammar 93 

Questions on United States History ^ . . . . 136 

Answers to Questions on United States History 151 

Questions on Physiology 203 

Answers to Questions on Physiology 213 

Questions on Theory and Practice of Teaching .... 252 

Answers to Questions on Theory and Practice of Teaching. . . .256 

Questions on Mathematical Geography 273 

Answers to Questions on Mathematical Geography 278 

Questions on Political Geography 291 

Answers to Questions on Political Geography 297 

Questions on Physical Geography 314 

Answers to Questions on Physical Geography 321 

Questions on Civil Government 350 

Answers to Questions on Civil Government 355 

APPENDIX. 

Rules to be observed at Examinations 371 

Hints on the preparation of ManuscrijDts 374 

Programme 379 

Outline of Percentage T 381 

Cartography 386 

Scale of Criticism 390 

Grammar 394 

Outline on Theory and Practice of Teaching. 399 

Topic List for the Study of Geography 403 



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